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Ven. Buddhaghosa no betrayer

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Buddagosha Thera

By Geewananda Gunawardana, Ph.D.

The premise that Ven. Buddhaghosa is responsible for the present status of Buddhism in Sri Lanka (Arahath Mahinda’s mission and betrayal by Ven. Buddhagosa, The Island 06/06/23) is yet another myth. It is true that the current practices have deviated from the teachings of the Buddha, but this transformative process has been in progress for thousands of years under the influence of multitude of factors. The simplest argument against the said premise is that similar transformations have occurred in other places that were outside of Ven. Buddhaghosa’s influence. To understand this transformative process, it is necessary to investigate both the origin of Buddhism in India and its subsequent spread and development in each country in its own ways.

The Buddha rediscovered a set of truths referred to as the Dhamma. The Pali stanza that Buddhists use to venerate the Dhamma clearly explains the nature of these truths thusly: ‘The Dhamma taught by the Blessed One is consistent and teach the same truth, self-evident and can be understood in this life itself, and cannot be changed nor can they be altered over time. Buddha’s Dhamma is to be investigated and can only be understood by oneself. Dhamma is for the wise to understand and realize.’

The Pali term dhamma means many things, but here it refers to What the Buddha Taught, the Buddha Word (vachana), or the Teaching. If the Teaching cannot change, as the stanza states, what keeps changing? In addition to the Teaching, Buddha introduced a system to institutionalise or disseminate his Teaching; in the Pali tradition it is called the sasana. Teaching explains the way Buddha related to reality based on empirical evidence. The objective for his followers is to explore the natural laws or the nature of the universe and the humans’ place in it and “see things as they really are”. The sasana or the system he put in place has three components: 1) knowing the principles (pariyatti), 2) experiencing (patipatti) and 3) realising the truth (pativeda). In simpler terms, this is akin to information turning to knowledge and knowledge turning to wisdom. While dhamma does not change, the sasana or the three aspects can change. Buddha himself predicted that the sasana will change and, at some point, will disappear.

To appreciate this natural process, it is important to understand the way an intellectual and ethical movement started by the Buddha transformed itself into a religion over the millennia. There were many religious movements in India during Buddha’s time, but he was respectful and tolerant of other religions (e.g., Upali Sutta). Instead of rejecting some existing religious concepts, Buddha interpreted them in new ways to fit his Teaching. For example, he gave new meanings to Brahminic concepts such as gods, kamma, and rebirth (Marasinghe 1974, Gombrich 1997). As evident from the large number of Brahmins who became followers of Buddha, the new interpretations were found complete acceptance. That does not mean Brahminism disappeared, it thrived in India and there is ample evidence that it existed in pre-Buddhist Sri Lanka as well along with several other religions such as Jainism, Saivism, and local cults such as Yaksas and Nagas (W. Rahula 1956). It appears that in Sri Lankan Buddhism, the Buddhist interpretations of earlier religious concepts were overlooked in favor of the original or pre-Buddhist interpretations as they better suited to a new narrative.

How did this new narrative arise? There was a major turning point in the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka that was fundamental to the transformation of the Teaching, but it has been mostly overlooked by scholars. The devastating events of the 1st century BC – famine, internal revolt, and invasions that nearly wiped out the sasana, compelled the Sri Lankan bhikkhus to commit the Tipitaka into writing. After the country returned to normalcy, the surviving few bhikkhus had raised the question: what should be the purpose of the sangha? Is it to practice (patipatti) or to learn (pariyatti) the Teaching? Having experienced the threat that caused near extinction of the Teaching, the sangha had decided that it was learning that is paramount in perpetuating the Teaching. This decision, it appears, resulted in the segregation of monks into two vocations that had not been described in the Pali Canon before: the village dwellers termed grantha-dhura and the forest dwellers termed vipassana-dhura (W. Rahula 1956).

Initially, the grantha-dhura monks were required to learn and teach the Tripitaka ensuring the perpetuation of the Teaching. At a time when writing was not widespread, the primary goal was to memorize the texts and pass it on to the next generation. Gaining a deeper understanding of the Teaching as required for liberation became less important. This attitude towards preservation persists even today: in many temples, copies of the Tipitaka and other texts are kept under lock and key to be used at an unknown future time, and memorizing Pali stanzas without paying much attention to their meanings is standard practice. Over time, the grantha-dhura monks undertook the teaching of other subjects like languages, grammar, history, logic, medicine, and astrology thereby further deviating from the ideals.

Naturally, the grantha-dhura monks contributed more to the society, and rulers and laity alike favoured them and rewarded them over vipassana-dhura monks. This differential treatment contributed to the dominance of the former and the gradual decline and disappearance of the latter. The unfortunate result of this development is that gaining insight into Teaching was mostly neglected and such practices transmitted from the teacher to pupil over centuries were lost. This environment led to the development of a new culture and a narrative in which the Teaching was presented in a different way.

This new trend is captured by Buddhaghosa in his fifth century commentary on Anguttara Nikaya, Manoratha-purani, where he states that at the end of the first millennium after passing of the Buddha, no disciple will have the capacity to become a stream enterer (sotapanna), the first step of the path to enlightenment (Lopez 2008). The important question is if this was Buddhaghosa’s own invention or was it the norm at the time. As patipatti was given up, expecting pativeda was not a realistic goal. Therefore, it is likely that Buddhaghosa was reporting the prevailing view. Based on examination of life and works of Buddhaghosa the renowned Pali scholar C.A.F. Rhys Davids writes that Buddhaghosa was a meticulous translator who did not inject himself into his work, further supporting this possibility (Law 1923).

A biographer of Buddhaghosa (Law 1923) translates a passage from Mahawamsa describing the reason for sending Buddhaghosa to Sri Lanka by his teacher Ven. Revata: “The text alone (of Pitakattaya) has been preserved in this land (India); the Attakatha are not extant here; nor is there any version to be found the vada (schisms) complete. The Sinhala Atthakatha are genuine. They were composed in the Sinhalese language by the inspired and profoundly wise Mahindo, who had previously consulted discourses of the Buddha, at the three conventions…” Buddhaghosa refers to “Poranas” in his commentaries, but as their Sinhala versions do not exists, scholars are unable to confirm their origins. Again, the question is if these controversial views expressed by Buddhaghosa, particularly those relating to meditation, are his own interpretations or did he merely translate the existing texts? Scholars reason that Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga is a revised from of Vimuttimagga, a treatise by a 1st century Sri Lankan bhikkhu named Upatissa, based on the similarities of the two (Nagai 1917).

As Rhys Davids suggested, it appears that Buddhaghosa did not invent things, he compiled his theses based on existing information.

There is another contributing factor that goes further back in history. The focus of the Theravada tradition is the monastic life. However, Buddha has given equal attention to guiding his lay followers to lead prosperous lives and achieve wisdom and inner peace. However, references to this guidance are few and far between in the Pali Canon. It is possible that the transmitters of the message being monastics themselves, had little or no interest in the affairs of laity (B. Rahula 2008). With the option for liberation in this life removed, and the paucity of guidance to laity, the grantha-dhura bhikkhus were compelled to come up with other ways to keep the laity engaged.

As the vipassana-dhura monks distanced from the society and eventually disappeared over time, a consensus has emerged among both monks and the laity that comprehending the Teaching is not possible in this life and it can be done only when the next Buddha Mettteya (Sanskrit Maitreya) appears. This was most likely inspired by Mahayana tradition. There is evidence that Mahayana influence was present in Sri Lanka as early as the 3rd century. In interviews conducted in late twentieth century, the chief prelates of all chapters have declared that it is not possible to reach the ideals of Teaching in this life in complete contradiction of the verse they recite daily to venerate the Teaching (Bond 1988; Southwold 1983; Gombrich 1988). Metteyya is mentioned in the Pali canon only once. According to Pali scholars, the Chakkavatti-Sihanada sutta (DN 26), in which the reference appears, is likely a later addition. On the other hand, post 5th century Sanskrit literature of the Mahayana school carries frequent references to Maitreya. In late 19th century, when Olcott and Blavatsky were spearheading the revival of Buddhism, they incorporated this concept to their Theosophy (Gombrich 1988).

The new narrative presented was to perform meritorious deeds (punna kamma) and collect merits to ensure rebirth in superior realms and wait for Metteya Buddha’s time to attain nibbana. Most of the meritorious activities prescribed were about supporting the sangha, places of worship, and performing elaborate rituals to venerate the Buddha and sacred objects. This served two purposes: maintaining the sangha and the sacred sites while giving an opportunity for the lay followers to safeguard the afterlife. However, the punna kamma as performed under this premise differs from the practice of dana prescribed in the Eight-fold Path as they are done in expectation of something in return. This also opened the door for pre-Buddhist practices such as offering material things and praying to gods, demons, and other spirits in return of favors or protection from ills to be incorporated into the religious life.

It is worthwhile noting that the dictionary defines religion as the belief in and worship of a superhuman power or powers, especially a God or gods. Therefore, the late nineteenth century Western scholars were correct when they coined the term Buddhism to describe the practices they witnessed. By this time, the Teaching, which has an empirical foundation, had been replaced with a belief system involving rituals associated with gods, deities, and sacred objects. The emphasis had shifted to the next life instead of the present life. Cultural rituals and ceremonies have existed during Mahinda’s time, but they were performed for veneration or celebration, but not for salvific purposes as today. As a result, the intellectual and ethical movement that Buddha started had transformed into a religion.

These transformative events keep adding even today. The development of a new ritual known as the Bodhi Puja started around 1976. While the practice of veneration of trees goes back to Buddha’s time, it was not done for salvific purposes. The new Bodhi Puja are perhaps modeled after the Christian services. Bodhi Puja is a very popular practice and is performed to seek help in various situations of life changing from getting through an exam, to getting a job, or to recovering from an illness. This practice is now so widespread that some North American temples conduct Bodhi Puja using potted Bo tree saplings kept indoors.

All is not lost; the Teaching is secure and more accessible to a wider audience than ever. From hindsight, it can be said that the Sri Lankan bhikkhus in the 1st century BC did the right thing. There is only one thing to do to get back on the path: follow the Buddha’s advice to Kalamas. Young generations must be taught not to believe things just because they are in the Pali Canon, or were told by elders, or are in the textbooks prescribed for examinations. They must be taught how to differentiate Teaching from commentaries and literature. Commentators have the liberty to express their views, but, as Buddha advised, we need not take their word without verification.

Scholars, linguists, historians, and archeologists etc., have added new tools to do so. It must be shown that every word in the Pali stanza used to venerate the Teaching is true. It must be emphasized that Teaching is not a belief system and there is no mystery involved; everything is empirical. Science is beginning to catch up with Teaching, and as a result, there are avenues for technology savvy young generations to better relate to the Teaching (Lopez 2008; Wallace ed. 2003; Paul 2016). Teaching offers many tools to benefit life here and now. It is time to stop the blame game and act: encourage the younger generations to be free thinkers and not give into tradition without inquiry. It is the Buddha’s teaching that we should rely on as it provides the skill set needed for leading a prosperous life here and now (B. Rahula 2008).



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The Division Bell Mystery

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Tales of Mystery and Suspense 3

The murder, in a private dining room in the house, is of a financier with whom the government was negotiating a loan. When this seemed difficult the Minister of Home Affairs agreed to lead discussions, since he had known Mr Oissel the financier when they were young. Hence the private dinner, but when the Minister stepped out for a vote, Oissel was shot just as the Division Bell rang.

The Brahms and Simon detective novels, the first of which I wrote about last week, were amongst several books by the pair that Robert Scoble gave me when I was in Australia towards the end of last year. Amongst them was another thriller of a very different sort, though that too was written and set between the wars.

Called The Division Bell Mystery, it was set in the House of Commons, the first such book I believe, and was by Ellen Wilkinson, a Labour MP who became Minister of Education in Attlee’s government after the war, having served previously as Parliamentary Private Secretary to several ministers. Her hero Robert West is also a PPS, but a conservative, and his Minister, of Home Affairs, is an old style aristocrat, not much loved by the less orthodox Prime Minister, who nevertheless needs his support on many occasions.

The murder, in a private dining room in the house, is of a financier with whom the government was negotiating a loan. When this seemed difficult the Minister of Home Affairs agreed to lead discussions, since he had known Mr Oissel the financier when they were young. Hence the private dinner, but when the Minister stepped out for a vote, Oissel was shot just as the Division Bell rang.

West was just outside the door when the shot was heard, and when he opened it saw only the dead body with a revolver beside it. The assumption that this was suicide was however challenged by Oissel’s grand-daughter Annette, who was his heir, on the grounds that he would never have killed himself. But her view was given greater credence by the Inspector put in charge of the case who said there were no burn marks on the body which would have been the case had Oissel fired the pistol himself.

Matters are complicated by the fact that Oissel’s flat had been burgled while he was at dinner, and Jenks the policeman allocated to him, who had served the Home Secretary and seemed more acceptable to Oissel than someone from the Security Service, had been killed. Matters get even more complicated when Annette says her grand-father’s notebook in which he wrote his secrets in cipher was missing.

That was found in Jenks’ pocket, and then a photographer came to West to say he had been asked by Jenks to photograph this. More worryingly for West, he finds in the Home Secretary’s drawer a few pages from the notebook with what appears to be an interpretation of the cipher.

Ellen

Overwhelmed by all this he confides in a recently created peer who knows all about the business world, who insists that they leave the house party at which they had met over dinner and discuss the matter with the Prime Minister who promptly summons the Home Secretary.

But the Home Secretary had gone to Scotland to launch a ship over the weekend, so the meeting could take place only on the morning of the Monday, when difficult questions were expected on the adjournment motion. He admits at the meeting that he had got Jenks to take the notebook, and also that he knew the code since it had been created by him and Oissel when they were young.

He thought he should resign, and even contemplated suicide, but the Prime Minister told him that that would be even worse for the government, and that he should go home to bed. The Prime Minister said that he himself would handle the question, which he did with aplomb, insisting that confidentiality was needed until the inquest. What had happened would be made clear then, he declared, leaving West and Inspector Blackit and Lord Dalbeattie what seemed the impossible task of solving the murder.

Dalbeattie had suggested that West ask a female Labour MP who was very fond of him to get what information she could from the staff. That there was some involvement there had become clear when West, going back late one night to collect a briefcase he had left in a dining room, found someone lurking in the dark in the corridor outside the private rooms. Room J, where the murder had happened, was meant to be guarded throughout by a policeman, but he had left the room having felt dizzy, and it seemed that his coffee had been drugged. West’s sudden appearance however had prevented anyone else getting into the room.

Dalbeattie decides to recreate the scene of the murder and has a dinner party in Room J on the Tuesday night, inviting West and Annette and the society hostess at whose house he had met, and also Patrick Kinnaird, an MP who was engaged to Annette, as well as the Permanent Secretary to the Home Ministry.

After coffee Inspector Blackit comes in with Grace, the Labour MP who had got the confidence of the staff, and a journalist who had also been helpful, and just as they say they think they are on the track the division bell rings. Grace jumps up and tells the Inspector that that provides the solution and they get a ladder, and sure enough find the revolver in the space where the bell is. Directed at the place where Oissel had sat, it had been primed to go off with the ringing of the bell. The waiter who had helped to set things up made clear who the murderer had been.

The reason for the murder and the confused motives of all those involved made for a fascinatingly intricate mix. But also impressive in the book were the descriptions of the isolation possible in the crowded premises of the house, the forceful characterization of the members – Grace based on the writer, the society hostess based on Nancy Astor, the first female MP – and the laid back nature of senior politicians which West realized had to change in the brave new world of high finance.

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The challenge of keeping value-based politics alive

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Anti-migrant protests in Durban, South Africa. BBC

The current outbreak of anti-immigrant protests in Durban, South Africa is bound to have taken many a subscriber to value-based politics or political idealism quite by surprise. After all, this is evidence that despite the historic accomplishments of nation-builders of the stature of the late President Nelson Mandela it cannot be taken for granted that identity politics, including racism in its worst forms, is no more in South Africa.

At the time of this writing details are scarce on the substantive root causes of the protests but it could very well be that economic grievances, particularly on the part of the majority community in South Africa, are contributing considerably to the disaffection. Shrinking employment and material prospects are likely to figure majorly among the factors igniting the unrest.

Fortunately, the local authorities in Durban are losing no time in calling for peaceful co-existence among the relevant communities and are pointing to the vital importance of stepping-up national integration processes. Apparently, immigrants in sizable numbers from neighbouring countries are present in Durban. However, international TV footage of the protests quoted some local authorities as saying that the majority of the immigrants in some centres that housed them were not illegal migrants and had the documents that entitle them to be in Durban.

In the Durban protests the world has fresh proof of the socially divisive consequences of the gathering globe-wide economic disaffection, touched off particularly by the continuing crisis in West Asia. Going ahead, the world would need to brace for increasing identity-based unrest of the kind it is just witnessing in South Africa.

Considering that the material lot of ordinary people everywhere could only aggravate progressively, with the US and Iran showing no signs of negotiating an end to their confrontation any time soon, it will be left to the more democratic and progressive sections of the world community to initiate positive measures collectively to bring a measure of relief to the discontented.

The swiftness with which such relief will be provided would depend crucially on the importance those sections taking up these undertakings attach to value-based politics as opposed to Realpolitik of power politics.

Going by these yardsticks, Italy could be considered to be moving in the right direction. Recently Italy came to the fore in initiating the collective named, ‘Rome Coalition for Food Security and Access to Fertilizer’, which has as one of its aims the swift provision of fertilizer to economically weak African countries.

In a recent statement Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Antonio Tajani, said that a principal aim of the project was to ensure that the farmers of Africa gained easy access to fertilizer, considering that food security is a growing concern among some of Africa’s economically vulnerable countries.

The statement went on to mention that some 30 countries hailing from the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, the Balkans as well as the FAO had been invited to join the coalition. The venture is far-seeing in that food security is main among the reasons for social discontent which in turn could degenerate into endemic political turmoil and bloodshed. Separatist violence and geographical fragmentation of countries wouldn’t be too far behind these developments, as Africa itself has often proved.

It is hoped that more G7 countries would take the cue from Italy and do what they could to ease the hardships of economically distressed countries, particularly of the global South. In these efforts they would need to break rank with the US, which is today brutally indifferent to the consequences of its policy of making ‘America First’, come what may.

Going by current developments, the Trump administration seems to be blithely oblivious to the wider, deleterious effects of its policy course in West Asia. Besides rendering Iran militarily and otherwise impotent nothing else seems to matter to Washington, as regards West Asia. This is policy short-sightedness of an extreme kind. After all, right now West Asia could be said to be sitting on the proverbial powder keg.

On the other hand, Iran is not giving the world the impression that it is doing anything constructive to get out of the policy straitjacket that it wove for itself decades ago. Rather than enter into a policy of ‘live and let live’ in relation to Israel in particular and initiate a process of reconciliation with the latter, it has chosen to operate within policy parameters that continue to damn Israel. This has put Israel always on the ‘defensive’ so to speak and prevented the opening up of space for meaningful dialogue.

That said, Israel is obliged to explore the possibilities of entering into a negotiatory process with the Arab-Islamic world that could lead to a de-escalation of tensions and bloodshed. It cannot continue to look at its neighbours through lenses that distort them as archetypal enemies who should be ‘wiped off completely from the face of the earth.’

In other words, the need is urgent for Realpolitik to give way to value-based politicks. Italy is beginning to prove that the latter approach could be pursued with some success. May be the EU and the UK could throw their weight behind these initiatives as well and establish that international politics could be refashioned on the basis of humane, civilized norms. The UN would need to be fully supportive of these moves and prove an organizational nucleus of the operations that follow.

In fact the time is ripe for people of conscience to collectively stand up on the side of peace and say ‘No’ to war and violence. Organizations such as the ICRC, the WHO and Medicines Sans Frontiers have already taken up this call. Referring to the widespread destruction of health facilities and their dehumanizing results these organizations have said, among other things, that ‘This is not a failure of the law. It is a failure of political will.’

True, ‘failure of political will’ among those powers that matter accounts for the runaway, uncontrollable nature of war and destruction in contemporary times, but more fundamentally it is a failure of the human conscience. It could very well be that the phenomenal levels to which violence and war have been unleashed today have had the effect of deadening consciences. This is a matter for urgent study and wide discussion.

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Vesak celebrations … with Cuteefly

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Perfect for celebrations, gifts, and meaningful occasions // Gift pack

I would describe Indunil Kaushalya Dissanayaka as innovative and creative, and she operates under the name of Cuteefly.

Indunil always comes up with something novel to celebrate special occasions, and she does it with candles … and that’s her profession.

She was in the spotlight when she created a happening scene, with candles, for Christmas, Sinhala and Tamil New Year, and Valentine’s Day.

As lanterns light up Sri Lanka for Vesak, the Colombo-based candle maker is quietly turning wax and wick into little pieces of the festival.

Candles reflecting Vesak themes

Her candles reflect Vesak themes – light, peace, remembrance, giving, etc., to enable you to fill your Vesak celebration with devotion and beauty.

Among her Vesak creations is a lotus-shaped soy candle, scented with sandalwood, lavender, etc., meant to burn during this Vesak Poya Day.

Indunil Kaushalya Dissanayaka: Customers
praise her for her creativity

These handcrafted Vesak candles are perfect for offering at the temple, she says.

What makes her creations so novel is that they come in different shapes, scents, themes, and all are handmade.

What’s more, her customers have heaped praise on her for her creativity.

According to Indunil, her creations are perfect as a thoughtful gift … to bring beauty, unity, and light into every moment.

Says Indunil: “Our beautifully handcrafted Unity candles are designed with premium detail and love, making them perfect for celebrations, gifts, and meaningful occasions.”

Cuteefly, says Indunil, is available online.

Readers could contact Indunil on 0778506066 for more details.

He Facebook Page is: Cuteefly.

Handmade with love

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