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New research reveals drought’s dual impact on flowering plants and pollinators

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by Ifham Nizam

In a world grappling with the realities of climate change, understanding how plants adapt to environmental stressors is more critical than ever. A groundbreaking study led by Dr. Kaushalya Rathnayake and Amy L. Parachnowitsch at the University of New Brunswick offers compelling insights into how drought influences the evolution of floral traits in Brassica rapa, commonly known as field mustard.

Published in the Annals of Botany, the study reveals the dual pressures exerted by drought and pollinators on the plant’s evolution. The researchers used controlled experiments to manipulate water availability and pollination methods, simulating real-world scenarios where plants must adapt to survive.

Speaking to The Island, Dr. Rathnayake added: “Drought isn’t just a physical stressor—it’s an evolutionary force.” The research found that drought conditions strongly select for earlier flowering. This adaptation, known as “drought escape,” allows plants to complete their lifecycle quickly before resources are depleted.

However, he said that this survival strategy comes at a cost. Plants exposed to drought produced fewer flowers and seeds compared to those in well-watered conditions. Despite these reductions, pollinators continued to influence flower size, suggesting that even under stress, the relationship between plants and pollinators remains pivotal.

“Our results show that drought not only changes plant traits but also alters how natural selection acts on those traits,” he noted.

The study also highlights the critical role of pollinators in shaping floral characteristics. While drought drove selection for earlier flowering, pollinators influenced flower size, favouring larger flowers even in water-stressed conditions. “Pollinators seem to prefer larger flowers, and this preference drives their evolution, regardless of the challenges posed by drought,” Dr. Rathnayake added.

Interestingly, the researchers found that plants subjected to hand pollination did not perform as well as those left to natural pollination, suggesting that human interventions might not always replicate the nuanced relationships plants share with their pollinators.

Implications for agriculture and biodiversity

These findings have far-reaching implications for agriculture and conservation. As climate change intensifies, understanding how plants adapt to stressors like drought is crucial for developing resilient crop varieties. “Our work provides a framework for predicting how plants might respond to future environmental challenges,” said Dr. Rathnayake.

The research also underscores the importance of conserving pollinator populations. “Pollinators are not just visitors; they are active participants in the evolutionary process,” added Amy Parachnowitsch, the study’s co-author.

The study serves as a reminder of the complex interplay between environmental and biological factors in shaping ecosystems. As climate change alters precipitation patterns and increases the frequency of droughts, plants like B. rapa will continue to evolve. The question remains: will they adapt quickly enough to keep pace with a rapidly changing world?

By combining scientific rigour with ecological insight, Rathnayake and Parachnowitsch’s work sheds light on the mechanisms of plant resilience, offering hope and direction in the face of global climate challenges.

Drought and Evolution: How Kaushalya unveils Nature’s adaptive dance

As climate change tightens its grip on ecosystems worldwide, drought has emerged as one of its most devastating symptoms. Beyond its visible impacts on agriculture and water resources, drought silently shapes the evolution of plants and their relationships with pollinators. In a pioneering study, Kaushalya Rathnayake, an evolutionary ecologist, sheds light on these intricate dynamics. His research on Brassica rapa offers profound insights into how plants adapt to water scarcity while negotiating their dependence on pollinators.

The evolutionary adaptations to drought

“Drought is more than a stressor; it’s a driver of evolution,” Dr. Rathnayake explained. His research reveals that in water-scarce environments, plants accelerate their life cycles, prioritiaing reproduction over growth. “We found that plants experiencing drought conditions tend to flower earlier than those in well-watered environments,” he said.

This evolutionary strategy ensures that plants can produce seeds before resources are completely depleted. Dr. Rathnayake’s experiments with Brassica rapa, a plant known for its short lifecycle, demonstrated how environmental pressures like drought independently drive selection for earlier flowering. “It’s nature’s way of adapting to a harsh reality,” he added.

While drought influences when plants flower, pollinators shape how they bloom. The research also delves into the role of pollinators during periods of water scarcity. “Pollinators become more selective when floral resources are limited, favouring larger, more attractive flowers,” he explained. This behaviour exerts evolutionary pressure, encouraging plants to develop traits that maximise their appeal to pollinators despite challenging conditions.

These dual influences – drought and pollinators – highlight the complexity of plant survival strategies. Rathnayake emphasised, “The interplay between abiotic stressors like drought and biotic agents like pollinators is key to understanding plant evolution in a changing climate.”

Kaushalya taking phenotypic measurements, soil water contents of Brassica rapa plants in the lab

A Lifetime of ecological curiosity

Kaushalya Rathnayake’s journey into the world of biodiversity began in the lush landscapes of Kandy, Sri Lanka. Inspired by the rich flora and fauna of his homeland, he pursued a degree in biodiversity conservation at the Rajarata University. His early work focused on pollination networks in Sri Lanka’s dry zones, laying the foundation for his future studies.

After contributing to environmental initiatives in Sri Lanka, Rathnayake moved to Canada to advance his academic pursuits. At Memorial University, he explored the interactions between mosses and flies. Now, as a PhD graduate from the University of New Brunswick, Dr. Rathnayake applies his expertise to both research and industry. He works as an Integrated Pest Management Specialist and shares his knowledge as a sessional instructor.

Implications for global biodiversity

Rathnayake’s findings have far-reaching implications. “If drought continues to drive earlier flowering and pollinator relationships become mismatched, entire ecosystems could destabilise,” he warned. Such mismatches could lead to reduced crop yields, threatening food security.

He advocates for a multi-pronged approach to tackle these challenges. “We need policies that address water scarcity, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and protect pollinator populations,” he urged.

As ecosystems face increasing pressure from climate change, Rathnayake’s research serves as a clarion call. By unraveling the intricate connections between plants and their environment, he underscores the urgent need for collective action. “The survival of biodiversity hinges on understanding these dynamics and acting swiftly to mitigate their impacts,” he concluded.

Through his work, Rathnayake exemplifies how curiosity and dedication can illuminate the path to sustainability, reminding us that every small action matters in preserving the intricate web of life on Earth.

Double Whammy: Drought and pollinator mismatch

Flowering plants (angiosperms) rely heavily on pollinators like bees for reproduction and genetic exchange. However, with increasing water scarcity and prolonged droughts becoming a global phenomenon, both plants and their pollinators are experiencing significant disruptions.

The study highlights how water stress alters flower morphology, blooming patterns, and pollinator interactions. Flowers under drought conditions bloom earlier, produce fewer blossoms, and often exhibit changes in shape and size. These alterations not only reduce the plants’ reproductive success but also confuse pollinators, who struggle to recognize the flowers they depend on for food.

Dr. Amy Parachnowitsch, Associate professor, Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB Canada

Key Findings from the Study

Earlier flowering under drought:

Plants exposed to water scarcity accelerated their life cycle, prioritising reproduction over prolonged growth. This adaptation helps them ensure the survival of their genetic material in challenging environments.

Selective pollinator preferences:

During drought, pollinators showed increased selectivity, preferring larger and more conspicuous flowers. This suggests that only plants that adapt their floral traits to attract pollinators may thrive under water-scarce conditions.

Reduced yield and biodiversity risks:

Drought drastically reduced flower, fruit, and seed production. This not only threatens agricultural yields but also endangers plant species’ long-term survival and biodiversity.

Why this research matters

This study bridges the gap between climate change, ecology, and evolution. It underscores the cascading effects of drought on ecosystems, from disrupting the balance between plants and pollinators to threatening agricultural productivity and biodiversity.

Implications for conservation and agriculture

The findings call for urgent attention to climate-resilient agricultural practices and ecosystem conservation strategies. Protecting pollinators and ensuring sustainable water management are critical to maintaining the delicate balance of ecosystems.



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Features

The Rohingya question and states’ international obligations

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A boat load of Rohingyas rescued off MullaitIvu

The presence of Rohingya refugees in Sri Lanka has prompted sections in the South of the country to raise some concerns in connection with it but The Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka’s (THRCSL) recent report on the issue, if received and read in a spirit of reconciliation and humanity, should put their minds at ease.

To be sure, there is considerable substance in the objections and worries of the relevant Southern quarters but the majority of the refugees in question need to be seen as victims of complex political circumstances in their countries of origin over which they do not have any control.

Those Rohingyas who are now literally adrift in the seas of South Asia and beyond, are strictly speaking stateless. Most of them are escaping endemic political turmoil and runaway lawlessness in the Rakhine state of Mynamar and the spillover of such tensions into the Myanmar-Bangladesh border and beyond.

There has been playing out in the Rakhine region over the decades a Rohingya armed struggle for autonomy but the majority of the Rohingyas are not in any way supportive of this armed struggle which is an expression of the Rohingyas’ awareness of their separate identity as a community, although they possess a wider Muslim identity as well.

But there has been an influx of Rohingya refugees to several neighbouring countries from this conflict, including very significantly Bangladesh, and this has been triggering concerns among the wider publics in those states which are compelled to manage the Rohingya refugee presence amid economic pressures of their own.

The problems arising from the Rohingya refugee presence have been compounded by the rise of Islamic militancy in South Asia and the tendency among some of these militant groups to exploit this presence for the propagation of their causes.

However, this does not take away from the fact that the majority of Rohingyas are helpless victims of circumstance. They are caught up in the metaphorical ‘exchange of fire’ between mutually suspicious states that are compelled to contend with issues growing out of the rise of Islamic militancy. But for the majority of Rohingyas such endemic conflicts among states translate into displacement, statelessness and growing powerlessness.

For an enlightened understanding of what states need to do in connection with the refugee crisis and connected questions it would be necessary to read the THRCSL report above mentioned. States that are members of the UN family are obliged to ratify and implement a number of conventions related to refugees and the THRCSL mentions some of these. They are: The 1951 Convention on Refugees; 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons; 1961 Convention on the Reduction of the Stateless and the Rights of Refugees and Stateless Persons within Sri Lanka.

If Sri Lanka and other countries facing a refugee influx have not adopted these laws they would need to do so without further delay if they are opting to remain within the UN fold. In this connection, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights should be seen to be of fundamental importance. The Declaration is the fountainhead, so to speak, of international humanitarian law and UN members states have no choice but to adhere to it.

Contentious issues are likely to grow out of the implementation part of the mentioned conventions but it is best that signatory states take up these matters with the relevant key agencies of the UN rather than grouch over matters that surface from their inalienable obligations towards the stateless and homeless.

It was encouraging to note a Southern group in Sri Lanka mentioning that the Lankan government should draw the attention of the UNHRC to the fact that the state is not a signatory to some of the mentioned refugee conventions. This is the way to go. A dialogue process with the UNHRC, which does not happen to be very popular in Sri Lanka, on such issues would perhaps throw up fresh insights on Sri Lanka’s obligations on refugee issues that may then convince the state to sign and ratify the conventions concerned.

There needs to be a flourishing of such positive approaches to meeting Sri Lanka’s obligations as a UN member state. The present most unhappy existence of being a UN member state and not implementing attendant obligations needs to end if Sri Lanka is not to be accused of ‘double speak’ and ‘double think’.

Meanwhile, identity politics and connected problems are bound to remain in South Asia and bedevil all efforts by states of the region to see eye-to-eye on issues such as the stateless. The yawning ‘democratic deficit’ in South Asia continues to be a formidable challenge.

But all efforts should be made to reduce this deficit through collaborative efforts among the concerned states. This is so because increasing democratization of states remains the most effective means of making identity politics irrelevant and the latter is a primary cause for the break-up of states, which process throws-up troubling consequences, such as statelessness and refugees.

Fresh initiatives need to be undertaken by the ‘South Asian Eight’ to end the continuing ‘Cold War’-type situation between India and Pakistan, since they hold the key to re-activating SAARC and making it workable once again. It ought to be plain to see that it is only the SAARC spirit that could help in ushering a degree of solidarity in South Asia which could go some distance in resolving issues growing out of nation-breaking.

Once again, South-South cooperation should be seen as a compelling necessity. If vital sections of the South come to this realization and recognize the need for such intra-regional cooperation, the coming back to power of Donald Trump could be considered as having yielded some good, though in a highly negative way. Because Trump has made it all too plain that he would not be considering it obligatory on the part of the US to help ease the lot of the South any more.

The South would have no choice but to fall back on strategies of self-reliance. No doubt, this situation would accrue to the benefit of the world’s powerless. Self-reliance is the best option and the only key to unravelling external shackles that bind the South to the North.

Meanwhile, those sections of Southern Sri Lanka that are tending to cheer Trump on need to put the brakes on any such idle distractions. The message that Trump has for the world is one of division and strife. By rolling back almost all the progressive ventures that have come out of Washington over the years, Trump is plunging the world into further ‘disorder’. The international community needs to brace for stepped-up nation-breaking.

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Effective and non-effective methods for mitigating human-elephant conflict

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Villagers living in fear of wild elephants. (File photo)

by Tharindu Muthukumarana
tharinduele@gmail.com

(Author of the award-winning book “The Life of Last Proboscideans: Elephants”)

“We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them”.

-Albert Einstein

When we examine the records of funds spent in the years beforehand to mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC), it is evident that the expenditure has been growing. For example, in 2010, USD $505,001 was spent, but in 2018, USD $1,068,021 was spent. So, this shows that expenditure had been over double within a period of less than one decade. But in the same way, the HEC had always been rising throughout the years. So, what went wrong? The answer is that the funds were expended mostly on ineffective mitigating strategies rather than effective mitigating approaches. Henceforth, let’s look at a glimpse of what are the non-effective methods and effective methods.

Non-effective methods Translocation

Elephant translocation involves capturing elephants from one place and moving them to a safer environment. Sri Lanka had done this for many decades. One of the earliest translocations occurred in 1979, when 10 elephants were relocated from Deduru Oya to Wilpattu National Park (NP). So, it was a new experience for the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), and they even had to get a foreign veterinary surgeon named Dr. Ian Hoffmeyr from Etosha NP in Namibia to sedate the elephants.

Unfortunately, radio tracking collars were not put on those elephants to monitor updates of those elephants. So, ultimately what happened was that those translocated elephants’ status never got documented. However, in recent translocations, the GPS tracking collars were fixed on them and have given accurate updates on their whereabouts. According to those data, 3 conclusions are probable: (i) The translocated elephant got killed in the new home. (ii) Left the new home and returned to the initial home. (iii) created conflict with neighbouring villagers in the new home.

As for example, in 2007, a tusker named Ravana that was crop raiding in Anuradhapura got translocated to Udawalawe NP. He then got into conflict with neighbouring villages of Handapanagala, Aluthwewa, and Buttala. Due to this, Ravana got shot in the leg, and as a result, Ravana got re-translocated to Lunugamvehera NP. Again, Ravana raided crops on leased land in the park, and a few months later, Ravana got shot in the jaw and had an agonising death after suffering for a few days.

Another tragic event happened when a young bull elephant named Homey that frequently foraged at a garbage dump in Hambantota got translocated to Yala NP Block II, which took a journey of 75 km. Within a few days, Homey was back at the garbage dump. Astonishingly, when data from the collar was downloaded, it was shown that the route Homey took to return contrasted with the route Homey was taken. For the second time, Homey was translocated to Udawalawe NP, but as time passed by, he created conflict with neighbouring villages. Subsequently, Homey left the park and again returned to the garbage dump. For the third time, Homey got translocated to Maduruoya NP, almost 300 km away from Hambantota. At times, Homey tried to come back to the garbage dump but was unsuccessful due to compact human settlements. So, he continued to stay at Maduruoya but started to create conflict with neighbouring villages. This resulted in him getting shot frequently. One day he got shot in the head and died in a paddy field.

Elephant Drives

Elephant drives involve chasing elephants from one area to another area, and for this, firecrackers or thunder flashes would be used. This procedure can take days to get completed. These drives had happened as early as the 1970s, and the latest to be 2024. From a scientific perspective, the decades of elephant drives that have been done are one of the key reasons for Sri Lanka having the highest level of HEC in the world. Records have clearly shown that after an elephant drive, some or all driven elephants returned. Also, in every location where elephant drives took place, HEC still persists. In many cases, the problem-causing males don’t get driven because those males usually avoid it. Instead, non-problem-causing female elephants get driven. In such incidents, after those driven elephants got enclosed in a restricted home range, those elephants did face starvation and malnourishment that eventually made them die. For this, there are examples coming from Lunugamvehera NP and Yala NP.

Removing the problem elephants

Removing problem elephants could be done in two ways: one is domestication and the other is culling. Such acts can enhance the risk for elephants’ extinction. Problem elephants are usually male elephants, and elephants that raid crops are risk takers. Emerging research shows that risk-taking behaviour contributes highly to their reproductive success. So, if such elephants are removed from the gene pool, it weakens the elephant population.

In modern days, there is a popular misconception that the elephant population has risen, and it is immoderate. In fact, scientifically, there is no way to explain whether the elephant population has risen or plummeted. Because the first legitimate elephant census was done in 2011. Before 2011, elephant population numbers were given as guesses or estimations. After 2011, last year an elephant census was done, but still the results haven’t been published. There are many who think that the elephant population has increased because, around the country, there are places where locals are newly experiencing HEC. This happened because of habitat loss and the blocking of elephant corridors that occurred due to poor development planning done by various governments. So, as a result of it, new places experience HEC.

Still, the Sri Lankan elephant is classified as “Endangered” by the IUCN Red List due to its high risk of extinction and declining population. Also, we must remember that though culling or capturing of elephants is not done, yet annually, in the last few years, over 350 elephants have died due to HEC. This is only the documented data, and the undocumented figure can give a higher value. A mother elephant usually gives birth to a single calf with a two-year gestation period. They have 4-5 years of interval until the next calf is born. Females become less fertile after 40 years. In Sri Lanka only 6,000 elephants are left. So, such a high mortality rate due to HEC is critical.

Biofencing and Geological Barriers

A victim of the human-elephant conflict

Palmyra Palm fencing: This involves planting palmyra trees (Borassus) as a fence to restrict elephants’ movements. Though it has some positive effects, practically there are problems to call it a solution. This project is expected to take a longer time to achieve its anticipated outcomes and could take even a decade. Even so, the germination rate is lower, and by any chance, if at least one tree fails to grow, the fence becomes ineffective.

Thorny plant fencing: Plants such as agave, cacti, and bougainvillaea had been used to deter elephants, but those had been unsuccessful because of elephants’ thick skin. Besides, elephants even feed on thorny plants such as Acacia eburnean that have sharp thorns that can grow up to 1 inch.

Beehive fencing: The fence is erected at chest height with beehives fixed to it and spaced every ten meters. This method had high success in deterring crop-raiding elephants in Africa. In addition, the produce from hives provided economic benefits to farmers. This project was introduced by Save the Elephants Organisation (SEO). From 2014-2019 SEO collaborated with the Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society (SLWCS) to do a pilot project in Wasgamuwa. Unfortunately, results showed it was ineffective due to the reason that African honey bees (Apes mellifera scutellata) and Asian honey bees (Apes cerana indica) behaviour contrasts. Asian bees cannot scare away elephants, and those bees are not active at nighttime.

Trenches: Soil erosion had made trenches ineffective, and also the construction and maintenance cost is very expensive. According to past experiences, it had impeded wildlife movement, and a lot of other smaller animals had died after falling to them. Also, there is a potential of hydrological impacts that would have a negative effect on villages.

Effective methods

Before touching this topic, it is important to mention that the strategies put forward here are science-based projects, and these projects had been put into experiment as pilot projects with successful results. The villagers state that after the implementation of the project, HEC had been solved or mitigated. These projects had been done by the Centre for Conservation and Research and SLWCS.

According to research, it has been proved that the electric fence is the most effective to deter elephants. But it depends where the electric fence is erected. If it is erected in the boundary of a protected area, it can be ineffective, but instead, if it is erected at the border between elephant habitat and human-use areas, it can be successful. This is what is called community-based electric fencing and proved to be successful in mitigating HEC.

Another method is the paddy-field electric fences. These fences are installed seasonally. During cultivation the fences are installed, and during harvest the fence is removed and stored in their houses until the following crop season. So, during the fallow periods, elephants would forage the leftover harvest and other vegetation. By 2020, approximately 50 village electric fences and 25 paddy-field electric fences were active in the Kurunegala, Hambantota, Trincomalee, and Anuradhapura districts for up to 12 years. Feedback from the villagers is positive.

It needs to be mentioned that in 2020 a National Action Plan for the Mitigation of HEC was made by a committee of wildlife experts. Strategies included in the National Action Plan were chosen based on their demonstrated effectiveness, capacity to be executed on a suitable geographic and temporal scale, and cost-effectiveness. Stakeholder discussions were performed with the public and relevant agencies, and their feedback was integrated into the Action Plan as needed. So, if that action plan gets implemented, HEC could be mitigated!

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Congratulations…and celebrations

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Twenty-one years in the news, in Toronto, Canada, and that certainly calls for big time celebrations!

Dirk Tissera, Editor-in-Chief and Publisher of The Sri Lanka Anchorman, is working on making it a big scene.

He says the 21st Anniversary celebrations will take the form of a gala dinner dance, scheduled for Friday, 30th May, 2025, in Toronto, Canada, adding that there would be plenty of surprises!

In fact, The Sri Lankan Anchorman’s 20th Anniversary, ‘A Night To Remember,’ held on 31 May, 2024, at the J&J Convention Centre, in Toronto, turned out to a resounding success.

Dirk mentioned that last year’s event was sold out long before the scheduled date.

“We generally work on our anniversary celebrations months in advance to ensure that the audience got their monies worth, and there was plenty of variety in the music we provided last year, led by veteran singer, the legendary Fahmy Nazick, along with the band Déjà Vu, guest singer Cherry Deluna, and DJ Chami.

What is special about The Sri Lanka Anchorman, a tabloid newspaper, is its wide and varied content which Sri Lankan-Canadians eagerly look forward to reading.

In fact, Dirk Tissera received a top Toronto press award from the National Ethnic Press & Media Council of Canada (NEPMCC) for excellence in editorial content and visual presentation.

An old boy of St. Mary’s College, Dehiwela, he had his early grooming, in journalism, right here, in Colombo, and then moved to Canada, and is now based in Toronto.

Dirk Tissera is efficiently supported by his wife Michelle in the publication of The Sri Lanka Anchorman.

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