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Can Debt-for-Climate and Nature Swaps help make Sri Lanka’s debt more manageable?

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Lakmini Fernando is a Research Fellow at IPS with primary research interest in Development Economics, Public Finance and Climate Change. She has expertise in econometric data analysis, research design and causal methodologies. Lakmini holds a BSc in Agriculture from the University of Peradeniya, a Master of Development Economics (Advanced) from the University of Queensland, Australia and a PhD in Economics from the University of Adelaide, Australia.

Sunimalee Madurawala is a Research Economist at the Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS). She has over 15 years of research experience in the areas of gender, health economics and population studies. Sunimalee holds a BA (Economics Special) degree with a first-class and a Masters in Economics (MEcon) degree from the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka.

By Dr Lakmini Fernando and Sunimalee Madurawala

Sri Lanka’s economic crisis, fuelled by unsustainable debt and a default in 2022, left the country struggling to stabilise its economy. Its high climate vulnerability that disrupts livelihoods exacerbated the economic challenges. In the face of dual pressures from an economic crisis and climate vulnerability, the need for alternative approaches to financial recovery has never been more urgent. Therefore, debt-for-climate-and-nature (DfCN) swaps could be a possible option to lower the financial burden while addressing climate challenges.

The Need for Alternative Financing Options in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka was forced to default on its external debt and seek a USD 3 billion bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in March 2023. Its total debt stock stood at USD 92 billion, with 40% being external debt in 2023. Sri Lanka’s debt portfolio is complex and its outstanding debt to China and India accounted for 18% of total external debt (59% of bilateral loans) in September 2022 (Figure 1). Amidst the conclusion of debt restructuring, Sri Lanka might benefit by opening to alternative financial instruments.

DfCN Swaps as an Alternative

DfCN swaps are a sovereign debt restructuring tool that helps (partial) restructuring of external debt in exchange for domestic investment in climate action. Well-designed DfCN swaps provide debtor countries the fiscal space to invest in climate adaptation and biodiversity sustainability.

With unsustainable debt and climate change identified as pressing issues for developing countries, Sri Lanka emerges as a priority country for DfCN swaps. Earlier, DfCN swaps followed a ‘piecemeal approach’ – implementing smaller, uncoordinated projects and managing funds through extrabudgetary channels. In contrast, recent swaps follow a ‘systematic approach’ – focusing on broader programmes instead of individual projects and providing budget support by channelling funds directly into debtor countries’ national budgets. This approach makes DfCN swaps more effective by mobilising larger amounts of funds, increasing debtor governments’ accountability, linking payments to performance, and aligning Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs) in target setting.

Global Context and Debt Swap Options for Sri Lanka

DfCN swaps was first introduced in 1984 in response to the deteriorating tropical rain forests and mounting debt obligations in Latin America. Since then, many countries have adopted DfCN swaps to address both financial and environmental challenges.

In 2002, the United States (US) engaged in a bilateral swap with Peru, subsidised by NGOs such as The Nature Conservancy (TNC),

to protect over 1 million hectares of wilderness areas. The US has also engaged in similar swaps with Guatemala and Indonesia to protect tropical forests.

In 2015, Seychelles, pioneered a Blue Economy debt for nature swaps, converting USD 21.6 million of sovereign debt with Paris Club creditors to fund marine conservation. This is considered the world’s first debt swap for ocean conservation and climate adaptation.

Belize engaged in a ‘tripartite blue economy swap’ with the TNC in 2021, which reduced its external debt by 10% of GDP. TNC helped Belize to buy back USD 553 million of national debt borrowed from commercial creditors (30% of GDP) by issuing USD 346 million in blue bonds (10% of GDP). In response, Belize agreed to invest in marine conservation. This deal allows buy back of entire external commercial debt by TNC and Belize to invest USD 4 million annually on marine conservation until 2041 aiming to increase marine-protection parks from 15.9% of its oceans to 30% in 2040. Hence, this deal addresses the triple objectives of restoring debt sustainability, promoting sustainable development and enhancing climate resilience.

In 2023, Ecuador entered into the world’s largest DfCN swap, facilitated by Credit Suisse, buying back USD 1.6 billion of sovereign debt for USD 656 million in new sovereign debt. In return, Ecuador agreed to allocate USD 450 million in long-term marine conservation in the Galápagos Islands. The success of this deal was driven by several key factors: participation of academia, collaboration and consensus among multiple stakeholders including civil society and local governments, an innovative financing model, and government leadership.

The effectiveness of swaps depends on the ability to address several key challenges: political and macroeconomic stability to ensure long-term accomplishment; stable institutional structures to denote stability in planning and implementation; strong regulatory frameworks to cover both financial and environmental obligations; and knowledge/skills on swaps at every level of the public service. Accordingly, the success of DfCN swaps is dependent on the leadership role of debtor governments and a systematic approach in the designing and implementation of swaps.

Debt swaps are determined collectively by the respective parties involved, hence, it is difficult to predict the magnitudes of these swaps. However, following the three criteria proposed by Boland (2023) on the magnitude of debt, type of lending (whether it is a commercial or concessional loans) and interest of the creditors (considering the country’s track record), Sri Lanka may consider the following four creditors for a possible DfCN swap in the future (Table 1).

Way Forward

In addressing the triple challenges of high indebtedness, climate change and loss of nature, DfCN swaps can serve as an effective alternative fiscal instrument for debt-ridden Sri Lanka. Systematic planning and stringent government commitment and all relevant key stakeholders are crucial for its success. Also, addressing knowledge and skill gaps on debt swaps is crucial. With sufficient political and macro-stability, Sri Lanka could be ready to implement DfCN swaps potentially accelerating its economic recovery.



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Beyond arrivals: Can tourism and hospitality power Sri Lanka’s next growth phase?

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The Australian High Commission in Sri Lanka recently hosted the latest edition of its ConnectED Thought Leadership Series at the Australian High Commissioner’s Residence in Colombo, bringing together senior leaders from Sri Lanka’s tourism, hospitality, travel, events, education and related sectors.

The discussion, themed “Beyond Arrivals: Can Tourism and Hospitality Power Sri Lanka’s Next Growth Phase?”, focused on the role of tourism and hospitality beyond visitor arrival numbers, examining how the sector could contribute to Sri Lanka’s broader economic development.

The distinguished panel comprised Shiromal Cooray, Chairman and Managing Director of Jetwing Travels; Angeline Ondaatje, Chairperson of Tangerine Beach Hotels PLC, Royal Palms Beach Hotels PLC and Tangerine Tours; and Grant Dreher, Chief Executive Officer of William Angliss Institute Australia.

The discussion was moderated by Wayne Crosbie, Director – International and Business Development, William Angliss Institute Australia, who facilitated the conversation around the evolving needs of the tourism and hospitality industry and the importance of connecting education, skills development and workforce readiness with industry demand.

Adding a practical and experiential dimension to the evening, students from the Colombo Academy of Hospitality Management (CAHM) played an active role in delivering the cocktail reception for the distinguished guests.

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SL’s ‘Global Destination Marketing and Communication Campaign’ gets into top gear

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Tourists taking in Sri Lanka’s beauty

A high-level discussion on the implementation of Sri Lanka’s Global Destination Marketing and Communication Campaign, supported by the World Bank, was held at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Employment and Tourism. The initiative marks a significant step towards strengthening Sri Lanka’s position as a competitive and attractive destination in the global tourism marketplace.

The meeting focused on the importance of adopting a long-term, data-driven approach to destination marketing, underpinned by comprehensive analysis of tourism demand and supply trends, visitor behaviour, destination branding, and international marketing strategies. Discussions also highlighted the need for a transparent procurement process and institutional capacity-building to ensure the successful implementation and sustainability of the campaign.

Participants welcomed the technical expertise and strategic guidance to be provided by MTI Consulting and Skift Inc./JD, whose support will contribute to the development and execution of a globally competitive destination marketing programme. Through strong collaboration between public and private sector stakeholders, the initiative seeks to establish a sustainable roadmap to guide Sri Lanka’s tourism promotion efforts and enhance the industry’s competitiveness in key international markets.

The campaign is expected to play a vital role in strengthening Sri Lanka’s tourism sector, supporting increased visitor arrivals, generating economic opportunities, and contributing to broader national economic growth.

The discussion was attended by Aruni Ranaraja, Secretary to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Employment and Tourism; Chairpersons and Chairmen of tourism institutions under the Ministry; representatives of SLAITO, TAASL, the Tourism Advisory Committee, the World Bank, MTI Consulting, and Skift Inc./JD; as well as H.P. Somathilaka, Director General of National Planning.

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Labour shortages are pushing Plantation Companies towards machines, data and a different kind of worker

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Sri Lanka’s plantation sector is entering a new phase of transformation, as technology and innovation reshape how estates operate, manage resources and sustain productivity. Across the country’s tea estates and other plantations, machines are increasingly complementing skilled workers in tasks once done almost entirely by hand, while software and data bring new precision to decisions traditionally guided by experience.

Automated harvesters, pruning machines and drones are being deployed alongside GIS mapping, digital weighing systems and enterprise software. Though the technologies vary, they point to a common shift: plantations are finding smarter ways to meet rising demands with a changing workforce.

Mechanisation, however, is not without challenges. Sloping terrain, fragmented fields and crop variability limit where machinery can be effectively deployed. Still, as operating costs rise and labour availability tightens, the ability to combine human expertise with technology is becoming essential to sustaining productivity, competitiveness and the long-term viability of the industry.

Addressing the labour shortage

Sri Lanka’s plantation companies face a labour market that has changed from the one on which the industry was built. Migration, demographic changes and attraction from other sectors have made it increasingly difficult to retain workers for plantation work.

That is why mechanization is spreading beyond the most obvious applications. At Bogawantalawa Tea Estates PLC, machinery is being used for land preparation, pruning, weeding, harvesting, and agrochemical application. Selective machine harvesting and mechanical pruning have been introduced in tea, while mechanized and semi-mechanized methods are being extended to other crops.

Agarapatana Plantations PLC has taken a similar approach. Fuel-powered and battery-operated harvesters are being used in the field, while backhoes assist with uprooting and levelling new clearings. Drones are being deployed for foliar spraying. In factories, automation and energy efficient machineries are being introduced where production volumes justify the investment.

The changing face of plantation technology

Beyond mechanisation, plantations are steadily evolving into data-driven businesses, with RPC’s increasingly adopting technologies that are reshaping day-to-day operations. Agarapatana Plantations is rolling out automated green-leaf weighing systems with facial recognition and planning fertigation-based irrigation. Ten factories already operate on solar power, with six of them being carbon neutral.

Likewise, Elpitiya Plantations PLC has introduced Ballotronix tea-leaf readers to assess leaf composition, supported by iHarvest and Microsoft Dynamics 365 Business Central, giving managers real-time visibility across thousands of hectares.

Talawakelle Tea Estates PLC has similarly pursued transformation since 1992, introducing hot-water boilers across all factories from 2008, electronic weighing with real time data collection since 2015, as well as tablets, computers and a new payroll system for employees. Rooftop solar along with three in-house hydro power plants located in Palmerston, Radella and Somerset estates provide renewable energy. State of the art, modern colour separators have been provided to its Low Grown factories. Since 2025, drones are been used for chemical/ foliar spraying. These developments highlight how the plantation sector has steadily embraced technology for greater efficiency and sustainability.

The technological shift does not stop at the edge of the field as factories are becoming increasingly automated, giving special emphasis to energy efficient equipment. At Elpitiya, more than 80% of their factories are mechanized with state of the art machineries, with the intention to raise both capacity and efficiency.

On the other hand, Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC illustrates another possibility. After expanding its cinnamon cultivation, the company encountered a shortage of skilled peelers. Its engineers responded by developing and patenting cinnamon-peeling machinery.

That is more than a labour-saving exercise. It shows how a constraint can encourage technological innovation- and potentially allow an industry to expand beyond the limits imposed by the supply of specialised labour.

The company is also investing in automated factory systems and machinery for “matcha” production. Technology, in this case, is being used not merely to reduce costs but to strengthen value addition to products.

Machines will not make workers obsolete

Workers are being trained to use harvesters, pruning equipment and spraying machinery, while new roles are emerging around upkeep, data collection and digital reporting.

Horana Plantations PLC, for instance, has introduced machine plucking to address labour shortages. The company reports improvement in yields, consistency and labour productivity, while technology-driven harvesting has also been used to make plantation work more attractive to younger workers.

“Technology has become a prerequisite requirement for the plantation sector as we deal with labour shortages and the need to improve productivity,” Secretary General of the Planters’ Association of Ceylon, Lalith Obeyesekere stated. He noted that priority should be given to technologies suited to Sri Lankan conditions, supported by training and enabling workers to use them effectively. “That is a more useful way of thinking about mechanisation than simply counting the jobs a machine might replace”, Obeyesekere went on to note. He is confident that these changes will raise the productivity and profitability in the sector.

The next harvest

The direction of travel is becoming clearer. Precision agriculture, digital crop forecasting, automated weather monitoring, smart irrigation, digital traceability and further mechanisation are likely to become more common.

That does not mean the end of the plantation worker, nor the disappearance of generations of agricultural knowledge. It means that both will increasingly operate alongside technology.

For an industry whose competitiveness has long depended on its ability to extract value from land and labour, the new imperative is simpler: create more avenues, waste less and make each worker- and each hectare- more productive.

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