Features

TThe Supreme Physician

Published

4 months ago

2025/08/24

Thilina Walpola

The ancient hospital at Mahintale (Mihintale).

The Buddha on Sickness, Health and Nursing

During the Buddha’s lifetime he was given numerous epithets in recognition of his outstanding qualities. Some of these include the Happy One, Teacher of Gods and Humans, Lord of Creatures, King of Truth, Teacher, etc. One of the most interesting of these epithets, found in several places in the Tipitaka, is the Supreme Physician (anuttaro bhisakko). It is usually thought that this refers to the Buddha’s ability to soothe and ultimately heal the afflictions of samsara – birth, death and rebirth, greed, hatred and delusion. Certainly, this is how many people during his lifetime thought of it. For example, the brahman Pingiyani said:

“Just as a skilled physician might quickly cure someone ailing, sick and seriously ill, whenever one hears the different aspects of the good Gotama’s Dhamma, all grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation and despair disappear.”

The Paramatajotika put it like this: “The Buddha is like a skilled physician in that he is able to heal the sickness of the defilements.” While these and similar comparisons are legitimate, they are only part of the reason the Buddha was equated with and praised as being a skilled and compassionate physician. He also had interesting, insightful and practical things to say about doctoring and nursing, sickness, health, and healing in the conventional sense.

With primitive sanitary arrangements and large numbers of people living in close proximity to each other, particularly in cities, sicknesses of all kinds were a part of everyday life in the Buddha’s India. Some of those mentioned in the Tipitaka include jaundice, fever, ulcers, cough, hay fever, diabetes (madhumehika, literally honey urine), and leprosy. There is a description of the monk Kokaila having boils or pustules (phota) break out all over his body which gradually became bigger until they ruptured, discharging pus and blood, and causing him to die, which is a good description of smallpox.

The Buddha mentioned a man “whose testicles were like pots” which is a common symptom of filariasis, a condition caused by a roundworm transmitted by several species of mosquitos. Another manifestation of this condition is elephantiasis (sipada) which causes the legs to become grotesquely swollen. The ancients were aware of sicknesses that run in families (bandhukaroga), chronic illnesses (anusayuka) and epidemics, or what the Carakasaṃhita referred to as “the destruction of a whole districts” (janapada uddhvamsa).

What might be one of the few mentions in the Tipitaka of such occurrences was when Ananda informed the Buddha that a monk, a nun and ten lay disciples had recently died in Nadaka, one of the outer suburb of Vesali. The Jataka mentions a family afflicted by a disease known as snake-wind sickness (ahivataka) and despairing that there was little hope of survival, the mother urged her son to knock a hole in the wall of the house and crawl out, thereby avoiding the malevolent disease-causing spirit haunting the threshold and giving him at least a chance to survive. A later text says snake-wind sickness was one of two afflictions caused by evil spirits and would sometimes affect whole districts, while the second, mandalaka, would kill the whole family of the person it first struck. Some modern scholars have theorized that this affliction might have been malaria.

That the Buddha had at least five synonyms for sickness (roga, abadha, vyadhi, atanka, gilana) and that he was able to list nearly 50 diseases and infirmities suggests that good health was not common during his time. In fact, he opined that it would be rare, even impossible, for someone to get through life without being affected by at least some sickness.

The Buddha nursing the sick monk.

Contrary to popular misconception, the Buddha did not claim that all physical conditions, including injury and illnesses, were necessarily caused by past kamma. He mentioned at least eight causes of sickness of which only one was kamma; the others being a disorder in the bile (pitta), in the phlegm (semha), in the wind (vata), a disorder due to all three together (sannipata), seasonal changes (utuparinama), carelessness (visamaparihara) and external events (opakkamika, such as accidents and natural disasters. On other occasions he mentioned that an improper diet and overeating can likewise make one ill. Significantly, he did not include evil spirits as a cause of diseases.

The Buddha recognized two types of illness – physical and psychological – saying that while it might be possible to find someone who had never been sick in body, only those who had attained awakening (bodhi) could be said to be truly psychologically healthy. However, here we will focus on the first of these types of illness.

The Buddha defined health (arogya) as “having well-being and good digestion, not over-cold or over-hot, and balanced so as to be capable of activity.” He encouraged his disciples to cherish their health and take steps to maintain it and lauded good health as a real blessing, as something desirables, a great gain, and a wonderful opportunity to practice the Dhamma. He acknowledged that it would certainly be possible to live by the Dhamma despite being sick and with the resolution: “Though my body is sick my mind shall not be sick” but being healthy would make it many times easier.

As disease and sickness with non-kammic causes can respond to medical intervention the Buddha saw the physician’s role as a vital one. He said: “Indeed, those who care for the sick are of great benefit [to others]” (api ca gilanupaṭṭhaka bahupakara). Consequently, his Dhamma is replete with information pertaining to the treatment of the sick. Because the Tipitaka predates the separation and specialization of the medical profession as presented in early Ayurvedic treatises such as the Susrutasamhita and the Carakasamhita, it rarely makes a distinction between the physician or doctor (bhisakka or vejja) and the nurse (gilanupatthaka). During the Buddha’s time the doctor probably performed all the functions in the sick room, including that of nursing the patient. So the Buddha offered this advice to the physician/nurse:

“Possessing five qualities, one who nurses the sick is fit to do so. What are the five? He can prepare the medicine. He knows what is good and what is not. What is good he offers, and what is not he does not. He nurses the sick out of love, not out of hope for gain. He is unmoved by excrement, urine, vomit and spittle. And from time to time, he can instruct, delight, inspire and uplift the sick with talk on Dhamma.”

Of the five points mentioned here the first concern the physician’s responsibility to be fully trained in and skillful in the administration of drugs, given that some drugs can be dangerous if not prescribed properly. The second point is perhaps equivalent to the Hippocratic Oath’s stipulation; that the physician shall never do anything to harm a patient, even if asked to do so. The third point counsels the physician to have a benevolent attitude to patients and put their welfare above personal gain. The fourth point reminds the physician that at times it might be necessary to deal with the loathsome aspects of the human body and that he or she should do this with detachment, both for his or her own mental balance and so as not to embarrass or humiliate the patient. The fifth and final stipulation is a recognition of the fact that spiritual counseling and comfort can have a part to play in healing and that the physician or caregiver needs to have at least some abilities in this area.

The Buddha made it a rule that his monks should not practice medicine, although as will be mentioned below, they were expected to look after their fellows when sick, and this may have sometimes required going beyond just nursing to diagnosing the affliction and dispensing the appropriate medicine. Why would the Buddha have forbidden his monks doing something that is so often associated with compassion and kindness? The answer lies in the purpose and goal of the monastic vocation – to realize awakening and to teach others how to realize it. Beyond this, monks and nuns were discouraged from getting involved in worldly pursuits. Monastics who practiced medicine would soon find themselves being often called upon for their services and have little time for doing what they became monastics for. Nonetheless, in later centuries it was common for monks to act as doctors but this was a departure from the Buddha’s original vision for the monastic life.

The Buddha recognized that even the most experienced physician could not cure every affliction and therefore that different patients would have different prognosis. He observed:

The Chinese physician Sun Simiao

“There are these three types of patients to be found in the world. There is the patient who, whether or not he obtains the proper diet, medicines and nursing, will not recover from his illness. Then there is the patient who, whether or not he obtains the proper diet, medicines, and nursing, will recover from his sickness anyway. Lastly there is the patient who will recover from his illness only if he gets the proper diet, medicines and nursing. It is for this last type of patient that proper diet, medicine and nursing should be prescribed, but the others should be looked after also.”

Apart from being an astute and clear-eyed observation these recommendations contain something of major importance; the Buddha’s last point. Susruta, the father of Indian medicine, advised the physician not to treat a patient who is likely to die so as to avoid being blamed for their death. In contrast, the Buddha said patients should be treated and nursed even if they were going to die. This is probably the earliest inkling of what today is called palliative care. While the ethical principles Susruta taught were of a high order, on this point the Buddha was superior and ahead of his time.

The Buddha was aware that while medical intervention is crucial for the restoration of health, the patient’s attitude and behavior also has a part to play and he had something to say about this too.

“Possessed of five qualities, a sick person is of much help to himself. What five? He knows what medicine is good for him. He knows the right measure in his treatment; he takes the medicine as prescribed. He describes his illness to the nurse who cares for him out of kindness, saying, ‘It comes like this.’ ‘It goes like this.’ ‘When it is there it is like this. And he endures the various pains of the sickness.”

Once again, this is practical, common-sense advice and suggests that patients should have some role to play in the healing process.

The Buddha did not just talk about ministering to the sick, on one occasion he did just that. Once he and Ananda washed and comforted a monk who had been neglected by his fellow monks and left lying in his own excrement; a horrible and humiliating condition to be in. Having tended to this monk’s needs the Buddha called the other monks together and in measured but firm words scolded them for their neglect of one of their fellows and ended by saying: “If you would minister to me, minister the sick” (yo bhikkhave mam upattaheyya so gilanam upatthahissati). And it wasn’t just his monastics he encouraged to look after those they had a relationship with but his lay disciples too. An employer should, he said, look after his underlings when they are sick and the mistress of a house should carefully monitor the strengths and weakness of servants and workers when they fall ill.

Recent research has shown that regular visits by loved ones and friends to hospital patients is a crucial component in their recovery. It is not surprising therefore to find that the Buddha always found the time to visit his monastic and lay disciples when they were ill. During such visits he would inquire about how the patient was going to let them know his concern for their welfare, asking: “I hope you are managing and getting better. I hope there are signs that the discomfort is declining and not increasing.” Inspired by this, monks and nuns followed his example. Hearing that the monk Channa was critically ill Sariputta went to check on him only to find that he was in such pain that he was seriously thinking of killing himself. Shocked by this Sariputta cried:

“Don’t kill yourself Channa. Live! I want you to live. If you don’t have suitable food I will get it for you. If you don’t have the right medicine, I will get it for you. If you don’t have proper care I will take care of you. Do not kill yourself. Live! I want you to live.”

Because of the seriousness of the situation Sâriputta responded with more than just his presence and expressions of sympathy – he undertook to provide Channa with practical help. As for the lay disciples, the Buddha instructed them how to console their sick fellow disciples so as to lessen any fear or anxiety they might have. Thus, when it seemed that Nakulapita’s condition might be terminal his wife assured him that should he die, she would be able to manage alone, thus easing his worry about her fate as a widow.

Later, when Nakulapita recovered, he recounted to the Buddha how his wife had so lovingly nursed him through his sickness. The Buddha told him how blessed he was to have a wife “with compassion for you, desiring your welfare, to counsel and mentor you.”

It is hard to know what influence the Buddha’s exhortation and example had on medical care in India and the lands where Buddhism spread because of the many gaps in the records. But we do know that the Buddha’s words were long remembered and often referred to in later Buddhist texts. An important Mahayana work translated into Chinese in the third century and still popular in China, the Brahmajala Sutra, paraphrases his words about caring for the sick:

“If a disciple of the Buddha sees anyone who is sick, he should provide for that person’s needs as if he were making an offering to the Buddha.” The 6^th century Chinese physician Sun Simiao was so famous he came to be identified with Bhaisajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha of Mahayana. In his influential Beiji qianjin yaofang he explained the attitude physicians should maintain towards those who came to them for help.

“If someone needs help because they are ill or because they are in some way afflicted, a great physician should take no account to status, wealth, or age; he should not bother whether the sick person is beautiful or ugly, an enemy or a friend, Chinese or a foreigner, or finally, whether he is learned or ignorant. He should regard everyone as equal and act towards everyone as he would himself. Desiring nothing for himself, disregarding all obstacles and not thinking of himself, he will be able to save a life out of compassion.”

Centuries later the author of the Saddhammopayana, a Sri Lankan work from the 12^th century, wrote something similar:

“Nursing the sick was much praised by the Great Compassionate One and is it a wonder that he would do so? For the Sage sees the welfare of others as his own and thus, that he should act as a benefactor is no surprise. This is why attending to the sick has been praised by the Buddha. One practicing great virtue should have loving concern for others.”

As for hospitals, when the Chinese pilgrim Faxian was in India in the fifth century he wrote this of the Buddhists of Pataliputra.

“The nobles and householders of the country have established hospitals within the city to which the poor, the destitute, cripples and the sick of all districts come. They are freely given help. Physicians diagnose their diseases and prescribe for them the correct food, drink, medicine and treatment that will restore their health. When they are cured they depart whenever they like.”

The ruins of ancient hospitals have been found throughout Sri Lanka. One attached to the monastery of Mahintale (Mihintale) for example, was founded in the ninth century and had 31 rooms built around a courtyard in which there was a shrine. Excavations revealed a medicinal bath, jars for storing medicines, grindstones for grinding them and surgical instruments.

When religion meets illness the miraculous is sometimes close by, particularly if the illness is chronic or judged to be incurable. Some of history’s great religious personalities are credited with having healed physical ailments through divine power. Whether or not such claims are true is difficult to say. Certainly, the claims of modern faith healers have all too often proved to have been at best exaggerated and at worst fraudulent, today’s high-profile ‘televangelists’ in the United States being an example of this. And more than a century of careful scientific study of faith healing has so far produced very little evidence of its effectiveness.

This raises the question of whether the Buddha had miraculous healing powers and that he healed people with them. As mentioned above, he frequently visited those who were sick and it is reported that some of them recovered sometime afterwards. Given that sound scientific research shows that patients spend less time in hospitals when visited by loved ones and concerned friends, this is hardly surprising. But the four Nikayas do not mention how soon after a visit from the Buddha a patient recovered and nor is there any suggestion in them that their recovery was somehow miraculous. This tells us something interesting about early Buddhism’s understanding of causes and cures of disease and something about the general character of his Dhamma as well.

Bhante S. Dhammika of Australia ✍️

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Features

Pharmaceuticals, deaths, and work ethics

Published

5 hours ago

2026/01/5

Thilina Walpola

Yet again, deaths caused by questionable quality pharmaceuticals are in the news. As someone who had worked in this industry for decades, it is painful to see the way Sri Lankans must face this tragedy repeatedly when standard methods for avoiding them are readily available. An article appeared in this paper (Island 2025/12/31) explaining in detail the technicalities involved in safeguarding the nation’s pharmaceutical supply. However, having dealt with both Western and non-Western players of pharmaceutical supply chains, I see a challenge that is beyond the technicalities: the human aspect.

There are global and regional bodies that approve pharmaceutical drugs for human use. The Food and Drug Administration (USA), European Medicines Agency (Europe), Medicine and Health Products Regulatory Agency (United Kingdom), and the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (Japan) are the major ones. In addition, most countries have their own regulatory bodies, and the functions of all such bodies are harmonized by the International Council for Harmonization (ICH) and World Health Organization (WHO). We Sri Lankan can take solace in knowing that FDA, the premier drug approval body, came into being in 1906 because of tragedies similar to our own. Following the Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy that resulted in over one hundred deaths in 1938 and the well-known Phthalidomide disaster in 1962, the role and authority of FDA has increased to ensure the safety and efficacy of the US drug supply.

Getting approval for a new proprietary pharmaceutical is an expensive and time-consuming affair: it can take many billions of dollars and ten to fifteen years to discover the drug and complete all the necessary testing to prove safety and efficacy (Island 2025/01/6). The proprietary drugs are protected by patents up to twenty years, after which anyone with the technical knowhow and capabilities can manufacture the drug, call generics, and seek approval for marketing in countries of their choice. This is when the troubles begin.

Not having to spend billions on discovery and testing, generics manufactures can provide drugs at considerable cost savings. Not only low-income countries, but even industrial countries use generics for obvious reasons, but they have rigorous quality control measures to ensure efficacy and safety. On the other hand, low-income countries and countries with corrupt regulatory systems that do not have reasonable quality control methods in place become victims of generic drug manufacturers marketing substandard drugs. According to a report, 13% of the drugs sold in low-income countries are substandard and they incur $200 billion in economic losses every year (jamanetworkopen.2018). Sri Lankans have more reasons to be worried as we have a history of colluding with scrupulous drug manufactures and looting public funds with impunity; recall the immunoglobulin saga two years ago.

The manufacturing process, storage and handling, and the required testing are established at the time of approval; and they cannot be changed without the regulatory agency’s approval. Now a days, most of the methods are automated. The instruments are maintained, operated, and reagents are handled according to standard operating procedures. The analysts are trained and all operations are conducted in well maintained laboratories under current Good Manufacturing Procedures (cGMP). If something goes wrong, there is a standard procedure to manage it. There is no need for guess work; everything is done following standard protocols. There is traceability; if something went wrong, it is possible to identify where, when, and why it happened.

Setting up a modern analytical laboratory is expensive, but it may not cost as much as a new harbor, airport, or even a few kilometers of new highway. It is safe to assume that some private sector organizations may already have a couple of them running. Affordability may not be a problem. But it is sad to say that in our part of the world, there is a culture of bungling up the best designed system. This is a major concern that Western pharmaceutical companies and regulatory agencies have in incorporating supply chains or services from our part of the world.

There are two factors that foster this lack of work ethics: corruption and lack of accountability. Admirably, the private sector has overcome this hurdle for the most part, but in the public sector, from top to bottom, lack of accountability and corruption have become a pestering cancer debilitating the economy and progress. Enough has been said about corruption, and fortunately, the present government is making an effort to curb it. We must give them some time as only the government has changed, not the people.

On the other hand, lack of accountability is a totally alien concept for our society. In many countries, politicians are held accountable at elections. We give them short breaks, to be re-elected at the next election, often with super majorities, no matter how disastrous their actions were. When it comes to government servants, we have absolutely no way to hold them accountable. There is absolutely no mechanism in place; it appears that we never thought about it.

Lack of accountability refers to the failure to hold individuals responsible for their actions. This absence of accountability fosters a culture of impunity, where corrupt practices can thrive without fear of repercussions. In Sri Lanka, a government job means a lifetime employment. There is no performance evaluation system; promotions and pay increases are built in and automatically implemented irrespective of the employee’s performance or productivity. The worst one can expect for lapses in performance is a transfer, where one can continue as usual. There is no remediation. To make things worse, often the hiring is done for political reasons rather than on merit. Such employees have free rein and have no regard for job responsibilities. Their managers or supervisors cannot take actions as they have their political masters to protect them.

The consequences of lack of accountability in any area at any level are profound. There is no need to go into detail; it is not hard to see that all our ills are the results of the culture of lack of accountability, and the resulting poor work ethics. Not only in the pharmaceuticals arena, but this also impacts all aspects of products and services available. If anyone has any doubts, they should listen to COPE committee meetings. Without a mechanism to hold politicians, government employees, and bureaucrats accountable for their actions or lack of it, Sri Lanka will continue to be a developing country forever, as has happened over the last seventy years. As a society, we must take collective actions to demand transparency, hold all those in public service accountable, and ensure that nation’s resources are used for the benefit of all citizens. The role of ethical and responsible journalism in this respect should not be underestimated.

by Geewananda Gunawardana, Ph.D. ✍️

Features

Tips for great sleep

Published

5 hours ago

2026/01/5

Thilina Walpola

Although children can sleep well, most adults have trouble getting a good night’s sleep. They go to bed each night, but find it difficult to sleep. While in bed they toss and turn until daybreak. Such people cannot be expected to do any work properly. Upon waking they get ready to go for work, but they feel exhausted. While travelling to workplaces they doze off on buses and trains. In fact sleep deprivation leads to depression. Then they seek medical help to get over the problem.

Some people take sleeping pills without consulting a doctor. Sleeping pills might work for a few days, but you will find it difficult to drag yourself out of bed. What is more, you will feel drowsy right throughout the day. If you take sleeping pills regularly, you will get addicted to them.

A recent survey has revealed that millions of Asians suffer from insomnia – defined as an inability to fall asleep or to sleep through the night. When you do not get enough sleep for a long time, you might need medical treatment. According to a survey by National University Hospital in Singapore, 15 percent of people in the country suffer from insomnia. This is bad news coming from a highly developed country in Asia. It is estimated that one third of Asians have trouble sleeping. As such it has become a serious problem even for Sri Lankans.

Insomnia

Those who fail to take proper treatment for insomnia run the risk of sleep deprivation. A Japanese study reveals that those who sleep five hours or less are likely to suffer a heart attack. A healthy adult needs at least seven hours of sleep every day. When you do not get the required number of hours for sleep, your arteries may be inflamed. Sleep deprived people run the risk of contracting diabetes and weight gain. An American survey reveals that children who do not get deep sleep may be unnaturally small. This is because insomnia suppresses growth hormones.

It is not the length of sleep that matters. The phases of sleep are more important than the number of hours you sleep. Scientists have found that we go through several cycles of 90 minutes per night. Every cycle consists of three phases: light sleep, slumber sleep and dream sleep. When you are in deep sleep your body recuperates. When you dream your mind relaxes. Light sleep is a kind of transition between the two.

Although adults should get a minimum seven hours of sleep, the numbers may vary from person to person. In other words, some people need more than seven hours of sleep while others may need less. After the first phase of light sleep you enter the deep sleep phase which may last a few minutes. The time you spend in deep sleep may decrease according to the proportion of light sleep and dream sleep.

Napoleon Bonaparte

It is strange but true that some people manage with little sleep. They skip the light sleep and recuperate in deep sleep and dream sleep. For instance, Napoleon Bonaparte used to sleep only for four hours a night. On the other hand, we sleep at different times of the day. Some people – known as ‘Larks’ – go to bed as early as 8 p.m. There are ‘night owls’ who go to bed after midnight. Those who go to bed late and get up early are a common sight. Some of them nod off in the afternoon. This shows that we have different sleep rhythms. Dr Edgardo Juan L. Tolentino of the Philippine Department of Health says, “Sleep is as individual as our thumb prints and patterns can vary over time. Go to bed only when you are tired and not because it’s time to go to bed.”

If you are suffering from sleep deprivation, do not take any medication without consulting a doctor. Although sleeping pills can offer temporary relief, you might end up as an addict. Therefore take sleeping pills only on a doctor’s prescription. He will decide the dosage and the duration of the treatment. What is more, do not increase the dose yourself and also do not take them with alcohol.

You need to exercise your body in order to keep it in good form. However, avoid strenuous exercises late in the evening because they would stimulate the body and increase the blood circulation. This does not apply to sexual activity which will pave the way for sound sleep. If you are unable to enjoy sleep, have a good look at your bedroom. The bedroom and the bed should be comfortable. You will also fall asleep easily in a quiet bedroom. Avoid bright lights in the bedroom. Use curtains or blinds to darken the bedroom. Use a quality mattress with proper back support.

Methods

Before consulting a doctor, you may try out some of the methods given below:

* Always try to eat nutritious food. Some doctors advise patients to take a glass of red wine before going to bed. However, too much alcohol will ruin your sleep. Avoid smoking before going to bed because nicotine impairs the quality of sleep.

* Give up the habit of drinking a cup of coffee before bedtime because caffeine will keep you awake. You should also avoid eating a heavy meal before going to bed. A big meal will activate the digestive system and it will not allow the body to wind down.

* Always go to bed with a relaxed mind. This is because stress hormones in the body can hinder sleep. Those who lead stressful lives often have trouble sleeping. Such people should create an oasis between the waking day’s events and going to bed. The best remedy is to go to bed with a novel. Half way through the story you will fall asleep.

* Make it a point to go to bed at a particular time every day. When you do so, your body will get attuned to it. Similarly, try to get up at the same time every day, including holidays. If you do so, such practices will ensure your biological rhythm.

* Avoid taking a long nap in the afternoon. However, a power nap lasting 20 to 30 minutes will revitalise your body for the rest of the day.

* If everything fails, seek medical help to get over your problem.

(karunaratners@gmail.com)

By R.S. Karunatne

Features

Environmental awareness and environmental literacy

Published

5 hours ago

2026/01/5

Thilina Walpola

A file picture of floods in Gampaha. Courtesy UNICEF/InceptChange

Two absolutes in harmonising with nature as awareness sparks interest – Literacy drives change

Hazards teach lessons to humanity.

Before commencing any movement to eliminate or mitigate the impact of any hazard there are two absolutes, we need to pay attention to. The first requirement is for the society to gain awareness of the factors that cause the particular hazard, the frequency of its occurrence, and the consequences that would follow if timely action is not taken. Out of the three major categories of hazards that have been identified as affecting the country, namely, (i) climatic hazards (floods, landslides, droughts), (ii) geophysical hazards (earthquakes, tsunamis), and (iii) endemic hazards (dengue, malaria), the most critical category that frequently affect almost all sectors is climatic hazards. The first two categories are natural hazards that occur independently of human intervention. In most instances their occurrence and behaviour are indeterminable. Endemic hazards are a combination of both climatic hazards and human negligence.

ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

‘In Ceylon it never rains but pours’ – Cyclone Ditwah and Our Experiences

Climatic hazards, as experienced in Sri Lanka are dependent on nature, timing and volume of rainfall received during a year. The patterns of rainfall received indicate that, in most instances, rainfalls follow a rhythmic pattern, and therefore, their advent and ferocity as well as duration could in most instances be forecast with near accuracy. Based on analyses of long-term mean monthly rainfall data, Dr. George Thambyahpillay (Citation, University of Ceylon Review vol. XVI No. 3 & 4 Jul.-Oct 1958, pp 93-106 1958) produced a research paper wherein he exposed a certain Rainfall Rhythm in Ceylon. He opens his paper with the statement ‘In Ceylon it never rains but it pours’, which clearly shows both the velocity and the quantum of rain that falls in the island. ‘It is an idiom which expresses that ‘when one bad thing happens, a lot of other bad things also happen, making the situation even worse’. How true it is, when we reminisce short and long term impacts of the recent Ditwah cyclone.

Proving the truism of the above phrase we have experienced that many climatic hazards have been associated with the two major seasonal rainy phases, namely, the Southwest and Northeast monsoons, that befall in the two rainy seasons, May to September and December to February respectively. This pattern coincides with the classification of rainy seasons as per the Sri Lanka Met Department; 1) First inter-monsoon season – March-April, 2) Southwest monsoon – May- September, 3) Second Inter-monsoon season – October-November, and 4) Northeast monsoon – December-February.

Table 1

The table appearing below will clearly show the frequency with which climatic hazards have affected the country. (See Table 1: Notable cyclones that have impacted Sri Lanka from 1964-2025 (60 years)

A marked change in the rainfall rhythm experienced in the last 30 years

An analysis of the table of cyclones since 1978 exposes the following important trends:

(i) The frequency of occurrence of cyclones has increased since 1998,

(ii) Many cyclones have affected the northern and eastern parts of the country.

(iii) Ditwah cyclone diverged from this pattern as its trajectory traversed inland, affecting the entire island. (similar to cyclones Roanu and Nada of 2016).

(iv) A larger number of cyclones occur during the second inter-monsoon season during which Inter-Monsoonal Revolving Storms frequently occur, mainly in the northeastern seas, bordering the Bay of Bengal. Data suggests the Bay of Bengal has a higher number of deadlier cyclones than the Arabian Sea.

(v) Even Ditwah had been a severe cyclonic outcome that had its origin in the Bay of Bengal.

(vi) There were several cyclones in the years 2016 (Roanu and Nada), 2020 (Nivar and Burevi), 2022 (Asani and Mandous) and 2025 (Montha and Ditwah). In 2025, exactly a month before Ditwah, (November 27, 2025) cyclone Montha affected the country’s eastern and northern parts (October 27) – a double whammy.

(vii) Climatologists interpret that Sri Lanka being an island in the Indian Ocean, the country is vulnerable to cyclones due to its position near the confluence of the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.

(viii) The island registers increased cyclonic activity, especially in the period between October and December.

The need to re-determine the paddy cultivation seasons Yala and Maha vis-a-vis changing rainfall patterns

Sri Lanka had been faithfully following the rainfall patterns year in year out, in determining the Maha and Yala paddy cultivation seasons. The Maha season falls during the North-east monsoon from September to March in the following year. The Yala season is effective during the period from May to August. However, the current changes in the country’s rainfall pattern, would demand seriously reconsidering these seasons numerous cyclones had landed in the past few years, causing much damage to paddy as well as other cultivations. Cyclones Montha and Ditwah followed one after the other.

The need to be aware of the land we live in Our minds constantly give us a punch-list of things to fixate on. But we wouldn’t have ever thought about whether the environments we live in or do our businesses are hazardous, and therefore, that item should be etched in our punch-list. Ditwah has brought us immense sorrow and hardships. This unexpected onslaught has, therefore, driven home the truth that we need to be ever vigilant on the nature of the physical location we live in and carry on our activities. Japanese need not be told as to how they should act or react in an earthquake or a tsunami. Apart from cellphone-indications almost simultaneously their minds would revolve around magnitude of the earthquake and seismic intensity, tsunami, fires, electricity and power, public transportation, and what to do if you are inside a building or if you are outdoors.

A recent landslide caused by heavy rains accompanying Cyclone Ditwah

Against this backdrop it is really shocking to know of the experiences of both regional administrators and officials of the NBRO (National Building Research Organisation) in their attempts to persuade people to shift to safer locations, when deluges of cyclone Ditwah were expected to cause floods and earth slips/ landslides

Our most common and frequently occurring natural hazards

Apart from the Tsunami (December 26, 2004), that caused havoc in the Northeastern and Southern coastal belts in the country, our two most natural hazards that take a heavy toll on people’s lives and wellbeing, and cause immense damage to buildings, plantations, and critical infrastructure have been periodic floods and landslides. It has been reported that Ditwah has caused ‘an estimated $ 4.1 billion in direct physical damage to buildings, agriculture and critical infrastructure, which include roads, bridges, railway lines and communication links. It is further reported that total damage is equivalent to 4% of the country’s GDP.’

Floods and rain-induced landslides demand high alert and awareness

As the island is not placed within the ‘Ring of Fire’ where high seismic activity including earthquakes and volcanic activity is frequent, Sri Lanka’s notable hazards that occur almost perennially are floods and landslides; these calamities being consequent upon heavy rains falling during both the monsoonal periods, as well as the intermonsoonal periods where tropical revolving storms occur. When taking note of the new-normal rhythm of the country’s rainfall, those living in the already identified flood-basins would need to be ever vigilant, and conscious of emergency evacuation arrangements. Considering the numbers affected and distress caused by floods and disruptions to commercial activities, in the Western province, some have opined that priority would have been given to flood-prevention schemes in the Kelani river basin, over the Mahaweli multi-development programme.

Geomorphic processes carry on regardless, in reshaping the country’s geomorphological landscape

Geomorphic processes are natural mechanisms that eternally shape the earth’s surface. Although endogenic processes originating in the earth’s interior are beyond human control, exogenic processes occur continuously on or near the earth’s surface. These processes are driven by external forces, which mainly include:

(i) Weathering: rock-disintegration through physical, chemical and biological processes, resulting in soil and sediment formation.

(ii) Erosion: Dislocation/ removal and movement of weathered materials by water and wind (as ice doesn’t play a significant role in the Tropics).

(iii) Transportation: The shifting of weathered material to different locations often by rivers, wind, heavy rains,

(iv) Deposition: Transported material being settled forming new landforms, lowering of hills, and flattening of undulated land or depositing in the seabed.

What we witnessed during heavy rains caused by cyclone Ditwah is the above process, what geomorphologists refer to as ‘denudation’. This process is liable to accelerate during spells of heavy rain, causing landslides, landfalls, earth and rock slips/ rockslides and landslides along fault lines.

Hence, denudation is quite a natural phenomenon, the only deviation being that it gets quickened during heavy rains when gravitational and other stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength of the material that forms slopes.

It is, therefore, a must that both people and relevant authorities should be conscious of the consequences, as Ditwah was not the first cyclone that hit the country. Cyclone Roanu in May 2016 caused havoc by way of landslides, Aranayake being an area severely affected.

Conscious data-studies and analyses and preparedness; Two initials to minimise potential dangers

Sri Lanka has been repeatedly experiencing heavy rain–related disasters as the table of cyclones clearly shows (numbering 22 cyclones within the last 60 years). Further, Sri Lanka possesses comprehensive hazard profiles developed to identify and mitigate risks associated with these natural hazards.

A report of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, says “Rain induced landslides occur in 13 major districts in the central highland and south western parts of the country which occupies about 20-30% of the total land area, and affects 30-38% of total population (6-7.6 Million). The increase of the number of landslides and the affected areas over the years could be attributed to adverse changes in the land use pattern, non-engineered constructions, neglect of maintenance and changes in the climate pattern causing high intensity rainfalls.”

ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY

Environmental awareness being simply knowing facts will be of no use unless such knowledge is coupled with environmental literacy. Promoting environmental literacy is crucial for meeting environmental challenges and fostering sustainable development. In this context literacy involves understanding ecological principles and environmental issues, as well as the skills and techniques needed to make informed decisions for a sustainable future. This aspect is the most essential component in any result-oriented system to mitigate periodic climate-related hazards.

Environmental literacy rests upon several crucial pillars

The more important pillars among others being:

· Data-based comprehensive knowledge of problems and potential solutions

· Skills to analyse relevant data and information critically, and communicate effectively the revelations to relevant agencies promptly and accurately.

· Identification and Proper interconnectedness among relevant agencies

· Disposition – The attitudes, values and motivation that drive responsible environmental behaviour and engagement.

· Action – The required legal framework and the capacity to effectively translate knowledge, skills and disposition into solid action that benefits the environment.

· Constant sharing of knowledge with relevant international bodies on the latest methods adopted to harmonise human and physical environments.

· Education programmes – integrating environmental education into formal curricula and equipping students with a comprehensive understanding of ecosystems and resource management. Re-structuring the geography syllabus, giving adequate emphasis to environmental issues and changing patterns of weather and overall climate, would seem a priority act.

· Experiential learning – Organising and engaging in field studies and community projects to gain practical insights into environmental conservation.

· Establishing area-wise warning systems, similar to Tsunami warning systems.

· Interdisciplinary Approaches to encourage students to relate ecological knowledge with such disciplines as geology, geography, economics and sociology.

· Establishing Global Collaboration – Leveraging technology and digital platforms to expand access to environmental education and enhance awareness on global environmental issues.

· Educating the farming community especially on the changes occurring in weather and climate.

· Circumventing high and short duration rainfall extremes by modifying cultivation patterns, and introducing high yielding short-duration yielding varieties, including paddy.

· Soil management that reduces soil erosion

· Eradicating misconceptions that environmental literacy is only for scientists (geologists), environmental professionals and relevant state agencies.

A few noteworthy facts about the ongoing climatic changes

1. The year 2025 was marked by one of the hottest years on record, with global

temperatures surpassing 1.5ºC.

2. Russia has been warming at more than twice the global average since 1976, with 2024 marking the hottest year ever recorded.

3. Snowfalls in the Sahara – a rare phenomenon, with notable occurrences recorded in recent years.

4. Monsoon rains in the Indian Subcontinent causing significant flooding and landslides

5. Warming of the Bay of Bengal, intensifying weather activity.

6. The Himalayan region, which includes India, Nepal, Pakistan, and parts of China, experiencing temperatures climbing up to 2ºC above normal, along with widespread above-average rainfall.

7. Sri Lanka experienced rainfall exceeding 300 m.m. in a single day, an unprecedented occurrence in the island’s history. Gammaduwa, in Matale, received 540 m.m. of rainfall on a day, when Ditwah rainfall was at its peak.

The writer could be contacted at kalyanaratnekai@gmail.com

by K. A. I. KALYANARATNE ✍️
Former Management Consultant /
Senior Manager, Publications
Postgraduate Institute of Management,
University of Sri Jayewardenepura,
Vice President, Hela Hawula