Features
The Buddha, Anatomy and Art
By Sravasti Dhammika
The ancient region known as Gandhara encompassed parts of what is today northern Pakistan’s Punjab region and parts of eastern Afghanistan. Buddhism came to this area relatively early and flourished there until about the seventh century. During that time an astonishing amount of sculpture was produced to embellish its temples and monasteries, some of it the finest ever produced in the Indian cultural sphere. One of the most notable of these sculptures, often called the Fasting Buddha, but perhaps should be more accurately called the Fasting Bodhisattva or the Fasting Gotama, can now be found in the Gandhara Gallery of the Lahore Museum in Pakistan.
It is not exactly clear when or where this statue was found. It was discovered by Colonel H.A. Dean, a British Indian administrator and a keen antiquarian, who donated it to the Lahore Museum in 1894 so he must have found it sometime before then. Dean also excavated a small stupa in Sikri and he may have found the statue nearby, Sikri being a few kilometers north-east of Mardan in Mardan District of northern Pakistan.
The statue dates from around the second or third centuries CE, is made of a polished black schist, is 33 inches or 8.82 centimeters high and depicts the ascetic Gotama during the time he was practicing severe austerities. He sits cross-legged and bare-chested, his robe seemingly having slipped down and covering only his arms at the elbows and his legs and behind the head is a large nimbus. His emaciated, almost skeletal appearance, is slightly unsettling when first seen. The pedestal on which he sits shows six monks, half to the left of a burning lamp on a stand and the other half on its right.
Each monk looks towards the lamp and worships it in a different manner. One holds a lotus, another a small bowl, two have their hands in the anjali gesture and it is unclear what the remaining two are holding. It would seem therefore that the lamp is meant to symbolizes the Buddha. One would expect the pedestal to show the five monks (pancavaggiyâ) who waited on Gotama during the time he was practicing austerities, but it shows six.
The statue is by no means the only one depicting Gotama during his austerity period but most of the other examples are either damaged or fragmentary and none exhibit the same mastery of the medium and attention to detail. Interesting also is that none of the other genres of Indian Buddhist sculpture – the Amaravati, the Kushan, the Gupta and the Pala-Sena – depict the Bodhisattva fasting, the one exception being a small image from Kashmir dating from the eighth century. Since its discovery the statue has been widely copied. A plaster cast of it made in the late 1890s is enshrined in the Dipaduttarama Vihara in Kotahena, and Wat Suthat in Bangkok has a bronze copy made in 1905. Nowadays temple wall paintings and book illustrations depicting Gotama practicing austerities are almost without exception clearly a copy of this statue, often a rather poor copies.
In 2012 when the staff of the Lahore Museum were cleaning the statue they lifted it by the arms and broke them off. Subsequent attempts to hide the damage and then when news of it got out, to repair it, have left the arms and hands unsightly.
Since 1973 three researchers; K. C. Murty, M. G. Reddy and Peter Abrahams, have carefully examined this statue to see what its surface anatomy can reveal anything about anatomical knowledge in ancient Indian medicine. Their findings are of great interest. For example, they found that the trachea and the trachea rings are correctly placed in the neck and the boundaries of the axilla, and the posterior and anterior triangles of the neck are clearly visible. The deltoid muscles on each shoulder are clearly and accurately shown as are the fan-shaped pectoralis major muscles on the chest and connected to the upper arms. The external jugular vein is immediately recognizable in the neck.
The Fasting Bodhisattva from Kashmir
The sternum, the long flat bone in the center of the chest connected to the ribs, is depicted as it is, in the midline, and even its xiphoid process can be seen at the bottom of the rib cage. The clavicles are placed in almost a horizontal position with the correct articulation. The hair under the armpits and the nearby axillary folds are accurately shown. Impression of the flexor and extensor muscles of the arm and forearm are visible and even some separate forearm tendons are identifiable. The abdominal wall is depicted flat and highly compressed indicating an absence of subcutaneous fat which does happens with extreme fasting or starvation.
The sculpture clearly possessed a good knowledge of the approximate size and position of the bones, joints and muscles, including their approximate origin and insertion points. Likewise, the extraordinary care he took in trying to depict an accurate representation of how the Bodhisattva would have looked during or after his years of practicing austerities is demonstrated by his treatment of the veins. For example, the prominent superficial veins of the forehead, upper limbs, thoracic wall and anterior abdominal wall are shown correctly as are the cephalic veins running from the shoulders and down the arms.
From all this, the researchers were also able to conclude that apart from the obvious emaciation, the sculptor who created this statue had a basic idea about the physiological changes that occur during starving. He depicted the cheek bones very prominently which is consistent with severe weight loss as are the folds of skin around the navel. However, the sculptor did not get everything right. For example, he gave Gotama extra ribs and they are not clearly articulated, and the segmented sternum is a feature in monkeys but not humans. He included blood vessels in the abdominal wall which is also inaccurate as blood pressure drops with severe fasting or starvation and veins here would not be visible.
It would be interesting to consider how a sculptor could have acquired such detailed and accurate anatomical knowledge. Famines occasionally occurred during this time and perhaps he had seen starved and haggard people and taken note of their appearance. Or perhaps the person who commissioned him to sculpt the statue was a physician who made anatomical sketches for him to follow or described for him how an emaciated body should look. Since some Buddhist monks at this time are known to have studied and practiced medicine, the patron could have been a monk who likewise showed or described for the sculptor how to make the statue. If this is correct, this monk must have wanted the artist to create a representation of Gotama with great realism so as to have a dramatic effect on those who would see and evoke their sympathy or admiration for him. Of these three possibilities I think this last one is the more likely.
There are several discourses from the Majjhima Nikaya, particularly the Mahasihanada Sutta, in which the Buddha describes in great detail the various mortifying disciplines he undertook in the years before his Awakening and how he looked as a result. Thus it might be interesting to see if any of what he said about his appearance coincides with details on the statue.
The Buddha mentioned that because he ate so little he became “extremely emaciated” and there can be no doubt that the sculptor succeeded brilliantly in portraying him like that. Another result of extreme fasting, the Buddha said, was that his eyes sank into their sockets looking like a glimmer of light on the water at the bottom of a deep well. The eyes on the statue do indeed look like that, their slightly lowered gaze blank and haunting. He described his limbs as looking “like a knotted joints of withered creepers”, and his ribs as resembling the sagging rafters in the roof of a derelict hut.
Both of these descriptions correspond roughly to what is seen on the statue. In another context, the Buddha described an ascetic as being “haggard and with protruding veins” which seems to have prompted the sculptor to depict Gotama’s veins exactly like that. He said that his abdomen had shrunken to the degree that if he touched his abdomen he could feel his spine and if he touched his spine he could feel his abdomen.
The Buddha said he pulled out his hair and beard, although on the statue he is shown with long hair and a beard. It must be remembered that in the years Gotama mortified himself he would undertake one practice for a while, then abandoned it and taken up another. Thus he may have pulled out his hair sometimes and at other times let it grow, and so this does not necessarily contradict the sutta. And of course there are several physical particularities the Buddha mentioned which would not be possible to depict in a sculpture – the dirt adhering to his body, his spine looking like a string of beads (the statue’s back cannot be seen), and the skin on his buttocks looking like a bullock’s hoof, neither of this body parts being visible on the statue.
Considering all this there might be another explanation, apart from the ones suggested above, for where the sculptor who created this masterpiece derived at least some of the information which allowed him to depict Gotama’s state so accurately. It is possible that he was familiar with the Mahasihanada Sutta either by reading it for having it read to him and been guided by it as he worked. If this is so it throws some light not just on ancient Indian anatomical knowledge; it would also suggest that even ordinary people such as out sculptor, knew their religion well.
It was a few years back that a former President of Sri Lanka took it on himself to pronounce SAARC ‘dead’. Since then there have been other sections of Sri Lankan opinion that have joined the critics of SAARC and taken the solemn stance that SAARC has indeed died what may be called a natural death.
Their fatalism is understandable. SAARC has failed to meet at heads of government or state level for the past several years to take the SAARC process notably forward. Regional cooperation has more or less been only an appealing idea. No substantive concrete projects have taken off to make the idea a hard reality. ‘Inner paralysis’ seems to be SAARC’s lot. Hence the fatalism in these circles.
However, being one of the worst cash-strapped regions of the world and a teemingly populated one with people virtually left to their devices, what choices do the ‘SAARC Eight’ have other than to try their best to band together and continue with their cooperation efforts, however small they may be?
There is no escaping the mounting debt trap for many of these countries and bankrupt Sri Lanka is a glaring example, but ‘throwing in the towel’ and abandoning themselves entirely to the diktats of the strongest economies and their agencies will prove a ‘living death’ for many countries in the SAARC fold.
The gains may be meagre but giving-up on SAARC cooperation in full would prove self-defeating for the organization and South Asia. Right now, the collective intention ought to be to salvage what the region could from the tenuous cooperative efforts. Moreover, such initiatives could go some distance to generate a degree of goodwill among the Eight and help in sustaining a dialogue process.
Given this backdrop it proved ‘a stich in time’ for the Regional Centre for Strategic Studies (RCSS), Colombo, to recently host the SAARC Secretary General Ambassador Md. Golam Sarwar to a round table discussion on the unifying potential of SAARC and its future possibilities, besides other related issue areas.
Held on June 24th and moderated by RCSS Executive Director and former ambassador Ravinatha Aryasinha, the forum brought together a vibrant, wide ranging audience comprising academicians, diplomats, senior public servants, civil society activists and many others. Following the presentation by Ambassador Golam Sarwar titled, ‘Reigniting SAARC: Achievements, Challenges and the Way Ahead’, a lively Q&A followed.
The above forum could be described as an act of lighting the proverbial ‘candle’ rather than ‘cursing the darkness.’ It surely is a ‘darkness’ that could be seen as daunting considering that the region’s pivotal powers, India and Pakistan, are failing to act in a spirit of accord but are engaged in bitter finger-pointing on a number of questions of vital importance to SAARC.
On the other hand, what is the rest of the region doing to bring the above sides together? It is disappointing that to date the rest of SAARC has failed to launch a major diplomatic drive to bring peace between the feuding regional heavyweights. It needs to act without delay and establish its earnestness and this effort would need to prove SAARC’s staying power in the unfolding months and even years.
In assessing SAARC’s seeming failure local opinion in particular has failed to factor in what could be described as weak leadership. Since Sheikh Mujibur Rahman of Bangladesh, the founding father of SAARC, the region has failed to produce a visionary leader who could advance the SAARC cause with charisma and drive.
Among other reasons, weak leadership accounts considerably for the faltering and stuttering status, as it were, of SAARC. Badly needed are leaders who could go the extra mile, think less of narrow national interests and work diligently towards the collective well being of the region but SAARC’s millions of ordinary people have been made to wait in vain for leaders of such stature. Instead, they have been burdened with politicians who seem to be relishing the apparently moribund state of SAARC.
Looking back, it could be said that it was the dynamic leadership factor that led to the launching of the Non-Aligned Movement and for its sustenance for a few decades. True, it could be seen in some quarters that NAM is no more, but as in the case of SAARC, the former too has been unfortunate to be burdened over the years with politicians who lack the vision and drive to unflaggingly advance the fortunes of the South. NAM and SAARC lack the dynamism and vision of leaders of the stature of Jawaharlal Nehru, for example, to give them the required guidance and intellectual depth.
The reasons are complex for there not being among us currently political leaders with the vision and the steadfast commitment to advance the legitimate interests of the South. However, it could be stated with conviction that the majority of Southern leaders have too easily caved in to the demands of the global North and its financial agencies.
These leaders have failed to see, for instance, that the largely market economy oriented Northern governments would not view with favour a centrist economic model that attaches priority to the interests of the dis-empowered publics of the South. This realization ought to have dawned on the current government in Sri Lanka, for instance, some while ago but it has no choice but to abide by IMF dictates since economic survival at present is unthinkable without the latter’s succour.
Accordingly for SAARC this should be the time for some soul-searching. Priority needs to be attached to ending the feuding between India and Pakistan since at present the material fortunes of the region hinge largely on these regional giants giving peaceful relations among them a try. This is no easy challenge to meet but some daring, visionary diplomacy needs to take hold among the rest of SAARC.
There is some sense in SAARC bringing the peoples of the region together through programs that address their best collective interests. A meeting of minds among SAARC nations could enable SAARC and its agencies to build a region-wide people’s movement for progressive political and economic change that could in turn lead to the region’s political leaders sensitizing themselves more to the neglected needs of their publics.
However, the time is ‘now’ for the initiation of these progressive changes and the voice of SAARC well wishers would need to drown out those of their critics.
A seminar, “Sri Lanka’s Economic Crossroads: Navigating Recovery, Resilience and Growth” was recently held by the Organisation of Professional Associations of Sri Lanka (OPA) at the OPA Auditorium, bringing together economists, OPA members, and professionals from diverse fields for an insightful discussion on Sri Lanka’s economic recovery and future growth prospects.
The event was held under the patronage of Jayantha Gallehewa, President of the OPA, and was jointly organised by the National Issues Committee (NIC) and the Seminars, Workshops and Programmes Committee of the OPA. The event reaffirmed the organisation’s commitment to advancing professional excellence, fostering insightful intellectual engagement, facilitating interdisciplinary knowledge exchange and creating a constructive platform for informed dialogue on issues of national importance.
The panel of speakers comprised Dr. Harsha Aturupane, Lead Economist and Programme Leader for Human Development at the World Bank for Sri Lanka and the Maldives; Dr. Achinthya Koswatta, Senior Lecturer in Economics at the Open University of Sri Lanka, and Anushan Kapilan, Lead Economist at Verité Research.
In his welcome address, the President of the OPA emphasised that Sri Lanka was at a critical juncture in its economic recovery journey where sustained reforms, effective implementation, and collective national commitment are essential to achieving long-term stability, resilience and inclusive growth. He noted that the country had experienced one of the most severe economic crises in its history with the economy contracting by 7.8 percent in 2022 and a further 11.5 percent in 2023, resulting in significant economic and social challenges.
Delivering his introductory remarks Bhanu Wijeyaratne, Vice President of the OPA and Chairman of the National Issues Committee, underscored the need to move beyond short-term economic stabilisation towards a comprehensive agenda of structural transformation. He observed that the economic crisis had revealed deep-rooted weaknesses within the economy, including persistent fiscal pressures, rising public debt, foreign exchange limitations, and insufficient diversification of the export base. He stressed that addressing these challenges through strategic reforms, institutional strengthening and long-term economic planning would be essential to establishing a more resilient and competitive economy.
While acknowledging recent positive developments, including improved inflation management, tourism recovery and signs of economic stabilisation, Wijeyaratne stressed the need to advance reforms aimed at strengthening fiscal discipline, enhancing productivity, improving competitiveness, developing human capital and reinforcing governance and institutional effectiveness.
He further highlighted the important role of professionals, businesses, academia and other stakeholders in contributing to evidence-based dialogue and supporting Sri Lanka’s journey towards a resilient, inclusive and sustainable economic future.
Delivering the keynote presentation, Dr. Harsha Aturupane provided a comprehensive assessment of Sri Lanka’s economic prospects within the broader context of global economic transformation. He argued that Sri Lanka functioned as a small open economy whose performance is significantly influenced by developments in the global marketplace. External factors could not be controlled, and the country must strengthen its domestic capacity and resilience to respond effectively to international economic shifts, he noted.
Tracing the evolution of global economic systems, Dr. Aturupane highlighted the transition from ideological divisions between state-controlled and market-oriented economies towards increasingly pragmatic approaches focused on growth, competitiveness and development. He noted that Sri Lanka’s own economic journey reflects a similar evolution, with contemporary policy debates now centred on practical solutions for sustainable economic progress.
The presentation also examined the transformative impact of globalisation. Dr. Aturupane observed that global economic integration had enabled several East Asian economies, including South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong, to achieve remarkable economic advancement through export-led growth strategies. Sri Lanka similarly benefited from this process through the expansion of its apparel industry and increased integration into global value chains.
Turning to Sri Lanka’s recovery programme, Dr. Aturupane emphasised that the ongoing stabilisation process should be viewed as a national programme supported by the International Monetary Fund rather than solely as an IMF initiative. He observed that strong worker remittances, improved tourism earnings, enhanced government revenue mobilisation and prudent import management have contributed significantly to economic stabilisation.
Despite this progress, he cautioned that rebuilding foreign exchange reserves and meeting future debt obligations remain major challenges. He underscored the need to strengthen export performance, attract investment and generate sustainable foreign exchange earnings to ensure long-term economic resilience.
The discussion also focused on monetary stability, inflation management and exchange-rate policy. Dr. Aturupane stressed that maintaining price stability was fundamental to sustainable growth and household welfare, while sound monetary policy remains essential for preserving economic confidence.
Looking beyond stabilisation, he argued that Sri Lanka must transition towards a broader economic transformation agenda. Sustainable growth, he noted, will depend on expanding productive capacity through investment, technological advancement, innovation, skills development and structural reforms.
Among the key constraints identified was the high cost of energy, which continues to affect competitiveness and investment attractiveness. Dr. Aturupane emphasised the importance of improving efficiency and affordability within the energy sector to enhance Sri Lanka’s business environment.
He further highlighted the social dimensions of the crisis, noting the rise in poverty and economic vulnerability among households. Strengthening social protection systems and ensuring inclusive growth, he argued, must remain central components of the national development agenda.
Another critical challenge identified was Sri Lanka’s demographic transition. With an ageing population, outward migration and evolving labour market dynamics, the country is increasingly confronting labour shortages in several sectors. Dr. Aturupane suggested that greater automation, increased labour-force participation and strategic workforce planning would be necessary to address these emerging realities.
Concluding his presentation, he emphasised the need to improve governance, strengthen institutions, enhance competitiveness and create an enabling environment for private sector investment. Sri Lanka’s future success, he noted, will depend on its ability to move decisively beyond crisis management towards a development model founded on resilience, innovation, productivity and inclusive growth.
Dr. Achinthya Koswatta reiterated the importance of policy consistency and predictability in fostering investment and industrial development. She observed that frequent policy changes create uncertainty and discourage long-term investment decisions, whereas stable and coherent policy frameworks build confidence and support sustainable economic transformation.
Meanwhile, Anushan Kapilan highlighted the substantial progress achieved in restoring macroeconomic stability following the recent crisis. He noted significant improvements in fiscal performance, including increased government revenue, reduced reliance on debt financing and a historically low fiscal deficit.
He further observed that public debt levels are declining faster than anticipated, economic growth has exceeded expectations and inflation has been brought under control more rapidly than forecast. Nevertheless, he cautioned that the recovery remains uneven, particularly within the industrial sector and that many households have yet to experience a meaningful improvement in living standards.
The seminar was expertly coordinated by Eng. Chamil Edirimuni, Vice President of the OPA and Chairman of the Seminars, Workshops and Programmes Committee, while the technical moderation and interactive discussion session were facilitated by Bhanu Wijeyaratne, Vice President of the OPA and Chairman of the National Issues Committee.
The event was attended by Tisara De Silva, President-Elect of the OPA, Eng. Ravi Rupasinghe, General Secretary, Past Presidents, members of the Executive Council, representatives of the General Forum and professionals representing a wide range of disciplines.
The seminar concluded with a vibrant exchange of ideas and perspectives, reaffirming the importance of evidence-based policy dialogue, institutional collaboration and collective national commitment in advancing Sri Lanka’s economic recovery, resilience and sustainable growth.
Yes, for UK-based presenter and artiste Samantha Kay, home is where the heart – and the roots – are. And her roots run deep in Sri Lanka.
In an exclusive interview with The Island, Samantha says “I’m proud to be Sri Lankan. My mum is from Kandy and my dad is from Colombo, so Sri Lanka has always held a very special place in my heart.
“Whenever I visit Sri Lanka, I love spending time on the beautiful south coast, especially Hikkaduwa and Mirissa. It’s somewhere I always feel connected to my roots and completely at peace.”
Now living in Bournemouth, on the south coast of England, where, she says, she is lucky to be close to some of the UK’s most beautiful beaches, including the iconic Sandbanks, Samantha has built a career that refuses to fit into one box.
She is a radio presenter, podcast host, singer-songwriter, personal trainer and life coach.
“I genuinely love the variety because every role allows me to connect with people and, hopefully, make a positive difference in someone’s day.”
Of course, music has taken her far.
One of her proudest achievements, she says, was releasing a song with 90s music icon Angie Brown, which reached No. 9 in the UK Club Charts.
She also reached the final stages of The X Factor and performed at Wembley Stadium in front of thousands.
Beyond music, Samantha competed in bikini bodybuilding across the UK, winning several titles. “It taught me discipline, resilience and self-belief,” she recalls.
Today, her focus is on radio, podcasting and coaching women. Her podcast encourages people to live life on their own terms rather than feeling pressured to follow society’s expectations.
Says Samantha: “Whether someone is single, changing careers, travelling solo or simply trying to find their purpose, I want them to know that it’s never too late to create a life that feels authentic. If you’ve ever felt like you don’t fit into the box, maybe you were never meant to.”
Samantha Kay also spent a year in Dubai, performing at five-star hotels, including FIVE, and coaching at the iconic outdoor gym on Palm Jumeirah.
“I taught strength and conditioning classes, and hosted wellness retreats, combining my passion for music, health and inspiring others.”
However, with family matters calling her back to the UK, she made the choice to return. “Family comes first,” she says.
Looking ahead, Samantha plans to grow her radio and podcast work, release more music, and expand her wellness retreats.
“My biggest passion is helping people, especially women, build confidence and believe in themselves,” she says.
“Wherever my career takes me, I hope to continue inspiring others to live with courage, kindness and authenticity, while never forgetting my Sri Lankan roots.”
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