Features
‘Fertilizer Saga’ in Sri Lanka: A Considered Opinion
by Professor W. A. J. M. De Costa
Senior Professor and Chair of Crop Science Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture University of Peradeniya
Why use fertiliser on crops?
Fertilisers are used for two purposes.
One purpose is to provide essential plant nutrients that are required for crops to produce an economically-important product (i. e. food for humans, feed for animals, a variety of industrial products, etc.). Just as people require food, crops require nutrients for producing what is expected from them.
When a crop is harvested and its yield taken away, a large amount of nutrients is taken out of the system (i. e. the soil). Therefore, continuous cropping of a land leads to the depletion of nutrients in the soil. Application of fertilisers to such a soil replenishes its nutrient pool and makes continuous cropping possible. This is the second purpose of using fertilisers.
A natural ecosystem like a forest does not require an external input such as fertiliser because nutrients are not taken out of the system. Nutrients in dead leaves, branches, trunks and roots are recycled back to the soil. It is a ‘closed’ nutrient cycle, as opposed to the ‘open’ system in an agricultural crop.
Inorganic vs organic fertilzers
Inorganic fertilisers (normally called chemical fertilisers) contain nutrients in a concentrated form (i.e. fraction of the nutrient in a unit weight of the fertiliser is high). They are produced via industrial processes or by refining mined minerals containing the nutrient. Three major plant nutrients, viz. nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are supplied as inorganic fertilisers, either individually (‘straight fertilisers’) or in a mixture (‘compound fertilisers’).
Organic fertilisers (organic manures) are raw materials of plant, animal or human origin. When applied to the soil, they decompose and release their nutrients. In comparison to inorganic fertilisers, the fraction of nutrients in a unit weight of organic manure is much lower. Therefore, to give a crop/soil the same amount of a nutrient, a much greater quantity of organic manure than inorganic fertiliser has to be applied. All organic fertilizers are ‘compound fertilisers’ in the sense that they contain a mixture of nutrients though in a diluted form.
When applied to the soil, the inorganic fertilizers release their nutrients quickly. In recent times, nano-scale materials have been used to slow down the release of nutrients from inorganic fertilisers (i.e. called ‘nano-coated slow-release fertilisers’). When applied to the soil, organic fertilisers release their nutrients slowly, because the organic raw material has to decompose to release its nutrients. Natural decomposition is done by naturally-occurring soil microorganisms. Formulations of microorganisms are used to accelerate decomposition and nutrient release from organic fertilisers.
Why ‘modern’ agriculture uses large quantities of inorganic fertiliser?
Global population currently stands at ca. 7.7 billion and is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030 and 9.7 billion in 20501. Land area suitable for growing crops is shrinking continuously because of a variety of reasons. Some of the productive lands are lost for urbanisation (i.e. population pressure) while some are converted to alternative non-agricultural uses (e.g. industrial purposes). On the other hand, a portion of lands available for crop production is gradually, but continuously, lost because they become unproductive and economically non-viable due to climate change (e.g. temperatures becoming too warm, rainfall becoming insufficient, etc.) and soil degradation (e.g. loss of fertile top soil due to erosion, loss of soil fertility due to continuous cropping and removal of nutrients without adequate replenishment, development soil problems such as salinity, acidity and accumulation of toxic material).
Increasing population and decreasing arable land area means that we are continuously challenged to increase crop yields per unit land area (usually called ‘crop productivity’) to fulfil the increasing demand for food, feed and the variety of products from agricultural crops. To produce a greater amount of yield from the same unit of land, a crop requires a greater quantity of essential nutrients—there is no such thing as a free lunch in nature— in particular nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). A crop has to obtain this increased nutrient requirement either from the soil (which may contain some amount of nutrients naturally) or via fertiliser applied to the soil. Except the soils in virgin lands, soils in the large majority of agricultural lands do not contain naturally the amounts of essential nutrients in quantities required by crops to achieve the productivity levels to meet the continuously increasing demand. Hence, the need to add large quantities of nutrients to the soil. This has to be done every season as most nutrients added during the previous season are removed as crop yield. Because inorganic fertilizer contains nutrients in a concentrated form, the required quantities of the three major nutrients can be supplied with a manageable quantity of inorganic fertiliser. Supplying of the same requirement with organic fertiliser would require substantially larger quantities, which are either not possible to find due to insufficient raw material or difficult to manage. Hence, the widespread use of inorganic fertiliser in commercial agriculture. Organic agriculture where crops are grown exclusively with organic fertilisers represents a small fraction of global agriculture (a very optimistic estimation would put it at < 5%).
Why the drive towards reduction of inorganic fertiliser use in agriculture?
While providing the required amounts of the three major plant nutrients to sustain crop yields to ensure food security and maintain soil nutrients at levels required for continuous cropping, application of inorganic fertilisers has caused adverse environmental and human health impacts.
Because nutrients are released readily from inorganic fertilisers, a considerable fraction of those added to the soil gets leached into groundwater and water bodies (i.e. rivers, lakes, reservoirs etc..). The consumption of water from such polluted sources has been linked to a variety of human health issues.
Inorganic fertilizers have been shown to contain toxic substances (e.g. heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, mercury, etc.) as impurities remaining in them after their mining and industrial manufacturing process. The accumulation of these toxic substances in the soil and water sources has been linked to certain human health issues. However, it should be noted that organic fertilizers, especially those of plant and animal origin, are not entirely free from toxic substances.
Alteration of the soil environment by adding concentrated nutrients alters the naturally-occurring community of soil microorganisms who perform many important functions in the soil to ensure its fertility.
In economic terms, inorganic fertilisers, most of which are produced in industrialised developed countries by multi-national companies, are prohibitively expensive to farmers in the developing countries.
Because of the above reasons, there has been a drive towards reduction of the use of inorganic fertilisers and a part-replacement of them by organic fertilisers. Such movements have begun in developed countries (as well as in some developing countries) since the1980s and gathered momentum during the last two decades. During certain periods, some countries and regions of countries have been forced to produce their crops largely on organic fertiliser because of circumstances (mainly political) (e.g. Cuba, Northern Province of Sri Lanka during the ethnic conflict).
Current situation in Sri Lanka
The present situation in Sri Lanka has arisen following a gazette notification by the government to ban the import of inorganic fertilizer and synthetic agrochemicals (i.e. insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) with immediate effect. The pollution of the water bodies and perceived links to human health issues, such as the Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Aetiology (CKDU) are cited as the reasons for the ban. While there have been a longstanding discussion at many levels of the Sri Lankan society on the role of inorganic fertilizers (and agrochemicals) in causing the above issues and calls for ‘toxin-free food’, the total and immediate ban came ‘out of the blue’ without any consultation (to my knowledge) with any of the relevant stakeholders (e.g. the Department of Agriculture, academia, the plantation sector research institutes, farmer organizations, growers of a wide range of crops or their organizations, private sector organizations in the supply and marketing chain etc.). Apparently, the President/government was acting on the advice of a few university academics (who are either advisors or political appointees as heads of public-sector institutions) and longstanding activists (e.g. Ven. Athuraliya Rathana, Dr. Anuruddha Padeniya et al).
Currently, all relevant public sector institutions have been directed to seek how alternatives to inorganic fertilizer (i.e. organic fertilizer) could be produced and supplied to farmers and growers in adequate quantities required during the Yala season which is already started and beyond. It has been stated in the media that any shortfall for the current season (and probably beyond until adequate quantities can be produced locally) will be provided through imported organic fertiliser. A similar strategy has been proposed for synthetic agrochemicals for which the principal alternative is pesticides of biological origin (i.e. Biopesticides).
Possible impacts of an absence of inorganic fertiliser in Sri Lanka
It is highly likely that in the absence of inorganic fertilisers, the productivity (i. e. economic harvest per unit land area) of some of the major crops in Sri Lanka (e. g. rice and tea), which are crucial to national food security and economy, will decline significantly leading to a decline in the total production (i.e. productivity × cultivated area). At present, Sri Lanka does not have sufficient sources of readily-available organic fertiliser nor does it not have the infrastructure in place to produce organic fertilizers in adequate quantities to fulfil even the minimum nutrient requirement of these two major crops considering the scale on which they are grown.
The prognosis would be the same for a majority of the other annual crops (e.g. cereals, pulses, vegetables, industrial crops, etc.) and floriculture plants (i.e. cut flower and foliage), which are grown on a smaller scale. Some crops such as rubber and coconut may not show an immediate decline in their harvest but will begin to show declines in the medium-term, depending on the existing fertility status of the soils on which they have been established and the overall management status of the plantation and its trees.
Why is Sri Lankan agriculture so reliant on inorganic fertiliser?
The scientific reasons
Soils in Sri Lanka are, by nature, relatively poor in the amounts of essential nutrients (i. e. the three major nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium plus magnesium, sulphur and calcium, which are also needed in relatively large quantities) that they make naturally available for crops growing on them. The natural supply of nutrients from a soil comes when the parent material of the soil (i.e. rocks and minerals) undergoes a very slow, gradual decomposition process called ‘weathering’. The plant nutrients are part of the minerals contained in the parent material and are released to the soil when the minerals weather due to the action of rain and other climatic factors such as temperature. Because of the high rainfall and temperature regime associated with the tropical climate in Sri Lanka, its soils have been highly-weathered over a long period of time (over several millennia) so that the existing soil minerals (the source of natural supply of nutrients) are considerably (if not severely) depleted of nutrients. Because of the high rainfall regime (especially in the wet zone and the Central Highlands and to a lesser extent in the dry and intermediate zones), a substantial portion of the nutrients that are released from minerals via the weathering process are leached and lost to the soil, further depleting its natural fertility.
Furthermore, most of the lands on which crops are currently cultivated in all climatic zones of Sri Lanka have been under cultivation for a long period of time. As explained earlier, long-term cultivation of a soil leads to depletion of its nutrient reserves.
Soils in the Central Highlands and those on sloping terrain in other parts of Sri Lanka are further degraded due to soil erosion caused by high-intensity rainfall. Erosion takes away the top layer of the soil and a substantial amount of nutrients naturally available along with it.
Because of the reasons outlined above, neither the grain yield levels of rice that are required to fulfil the annual national demand nor the green leaf yield levels of tea that would bring the expected level of foreign exchange could be sustained on Sri Lankan soils without providing the required quantities of the three major nutrients via inorganic fertilisers.
It is likely that in the absence of the recommended inorganic fertiliser (especially nitrogen fertilizer) inputs, yield reductions would become detectable in the current Yala season in rice and within a matter of a few months in tea. This is because of the specific physiology of these two crops. Nitrogen is critically-essential for early growth of rice and the leaf growth of tea. Therefore, a shortage of nitrogen to these crops would be felt almost immediately as a retardation of early growth of rice (which would be reflected as a substantial reduction in grain yield) and the weekly green leaf harvest in tea.
Similar to what happens in rice and tea, the retardation of growth and yield is likely to happen with a shortage of nitrogen fertilizer in all short-duration annual crops and commercial plants. Leguminous pulse crops (e. g. soybean, mung bean, cowpea, black gram, common bean, etc.) could be an exception because of their ability to utilise atmospheric nitrogen.
Impacts of a shortage of nitrogen fertiliser are likely to be delayed for a few years (as stated earlier) in coconut and rubber because of their specific physiology where the nut yield or latex (rubber) yield is not as dependent on an immediate nitrogen supply as the grain and leaf yields of rice and tea respectively. However, a shortage of nitrogen will cause a reduction in the internal processes of these plants, which will be reflected in a few years’ time, as a reduction in the processes leading to the production of nuts and latex in coconut and rubber respectively. Recently-planted and younger coconut and rubber plantations will show a retardation of tree growth which will delay the commencement of nut and latex production.
A basic scientific fact which should have been noted by the advisors to politicians, if not the politicians, is that a shortage of nitrogen affects the fundamental plant process, photosynthesis, which is responsible for growth and yield formation of crops2. Shortage of nitrogen, along with shortages of phosphorus, potassium and magnesium, decreases the rate of photosynthesis, which is translated in to a reduction of growth and yield of any crop, which may happen over different time scales in different crops. It is unlikely that in the absence of inorganic fertilisers, organic fertiliser applications would be able to prevent the resulting decrease in growth and yield of a large majority of commercial crops in Sri Lanka.
A few spice crops such as cloves, cardamoms and nutmegs, but not cinnamon and pepper, may escape yield reductions due to a shortage of inorganic fertilizer because they are largely present in homegardens in the Central Province which are generally not fertilized.
Out of the three major fertilizers, containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, a shortage would be most immediately felt for nitrogen fertilizer. The impact would be delayed for phosphorus fertilizer and it would be intermediate for potassium fertilizer. The scientific reasons are that nitrogen is the nutrient that is most critically-needed for a large majority of plant processes and is the most mobile nutrient in the soil, which makes it the most susceptible for leaching losses; phosphorus is the least mobile nutrient and therefore, can remain in the soil for
2 Evans, J. R., & Clarke, V. C. (2019). The nitrogen cost of photosynthesis. Journal of Experimental Botany, 70(1), 7-15. An expert review that was published in a highly-recognized scientific journal in plant sciences. Although most of its content is aimed at specialists in Plant Physiology, there are a few paragraphs (highlighted) from which an educated ‘layman’ reader could gather useful insights in to why nitrogen fertilizer is of such crucial importance for crops. a reasonable period of time and can be released to plants slowly; potassium is a nutrient which is intermediate in terms of its mobility in the soil and criticality of its need for plant processes.
What has been the response of the stakeholders?
This is only a snapshot from my perspective based on discussions with professional colleagues and contacts. An overwhelming majority of academics, research officers, extension officers, commercial growers and farmers do not agree with this immediate and total ban of inorganic fertilizers. A minority of stakeholders in the agriculture sector and an overwhelming majority of environmental activists (who unfortunately have no clear idea of how large-scale agriculture to feed a nation differs from growing a few pots of plants at home) have welcomed the ban. A powerful argument of this minority of stakeholders in the agriculture sector is that organic agricultural products (e.g. organic tea) fetches a higher price in the global market and will offset any loss of foreign exchange due to reduced total production. This argument ignores the decline in yield and total production of locally-consumed food (including the staple food, rice), the wide-ranging implications of which cannot be compensated by a higher price (which is unlikely to happen in the highly-volatile local market for agricultural produce).
Where do we go from here?
While disagreeing with a total and immediate ban on inorganic fertilizer, a majority of academics, research officers and extension officers, but not commercial growers and farmers, acknowledge that there is scope for an appreciable reduction in the quantities of inorganic fertilizer (relative to the levels that have been in use before the ban) without incurring a yield reduction. Farmers have been applying the inorganic fertilizers at rates which are above those recommended by the Department of Agriculture, because inorganic fertilizers had been made available to them at a highly-subsidized price.
Research on a range of different crops over several seasons across a range of locations carried out by my research group has shown that 25% of the recommended amount of nitrogen fertilizer can be reduced without incurring a yield reduction.
Therefore, a phased-out reduction of inorganic fertilizer along with a gradual increase of the contribution of organic fertilizer to supply the nutrient requirement of crops is a viable pathway that a majority of stakeholders agrees on. Increasing the contribution of organic fertilizer requires: (a) up-scaling of organic fertilizers that have been developed in Sri Lanka using microorganisms isolated from local soils; (b) developing infrastructure to produce such organic fertilizers at commercial scale; (c) changing farmer/grower perceptions and attitudes on the total dependence on inorganic fertilizers and start using organic fertilizer as a part-replacement via a concerted extension effort. (The agricultural extension service in Sri Lanka, which was acknowledged as one of the best in Asia in the 1980s, have been severely downgraded during the last three decades); (d) initiating a concerted programme to increase the organic matter content of Sri Lankan soils, which would enable them to retain a higher fraction of the nutrients applied to them via both inorganic and organic fertilizers and thereby minimize leaching losses.
Even if all the above are successfully implemented (which will take time especially in the current context), an agriculture sector, which is totally based on organic fertilizer—the first such country in the world according to the President—is unlikely to produce enough food (e. g. rice) to ensure food security in Sri Lanka or generate other agriculture-based products that fetch foreign exchange and support local manufacturing industries (e. g. rubber). Therefore, it is inevitable that a balance needs to be struck between the reduction of inorganic fertilizer (from the levels that were practiced before the ban) and a viable level of organic fertilizer as a part-replacement to provide the full nutrient requirement that a higher crop yield demands.
As a medium-term solution, research on a more balanced form of agriculture (i.e. an optimum combination of inorganic and organic fertilizer) within the climatic and soil conditions that are prevalent in Sri Lanka (while taking in to account their possible changes as part of global climate change) needs to be encouraged via increased funding. Currently, Sri Lanka invests only 0.11% of its GDP in Research and Development (in all disciplines including agriculture), which is one of the lowest even in Asia. Therefore, there is little room for optimism in this regard.
Importation of organic fertilizers
Importation of organic fertilizers is being promoted as a short-term measure to supply the nutrient requirement to agricultural crops during the period when Sri Lanka is expected develop its local capacity to produce organic fertilizers in quantities sufficient to meet the full nutrient demand of the crops. It is said that the quality of imported organic fertilizer will be assured via strict quality control procedures which conform to, for example, the EU Standards. Only time will tell whether this will actually materialize and provide a solution. A few points of major concern are as following:
Quantity
Experienced Soil Scientists and fertilizer experts are of the opinion that concentration of nutrients in organic fertilizers is such that large quantities need to be imported (subsequently transported to fields and applied) to fulfil the nutrient demand to produce the crop yields at the required levels to ensure food security and sustain foreign exchange earnings.
Environmental concerns
Almost all organic fertilizers, being material of plant, animal or human origin, retain a diverse population of microorganisms. Unlike inorganic fertilizers, which are inert material, organic fertilizers are live material. Microorganisms, whether in soils, plants or any other location or entity, are often highly environment-specific. Introduction of such alien microorganisms to Sri Lankan soils could cause all types of unforeseen interactions with local microorganisms. Some of these interactions could have environmental repercussions, which are irreversible as once released to the soil, these alien microorganisms cannot be ‘recalled’. Therefore, it is always advisable and safer to develop organic fertilizers locally rather than importing.
Sterilization of imported organic fertilizer to kill all alien microorganisms via a process of fumigation after importation is suggested as a solution to this problem. However, the large quantities of organic fertilizers that are required to be imported and the toxicity levels
of the chemicals that are used in fumigation could lead to environmental issues that the organic fertilizers are aiming to prevent. Recently, the Cabinet Minister of Agriculture went on record saying that only sterilized organic fertilizer conforming to quality standards acceptable to a government-appointed expert committee would be imported. Given Sri Lanka’s poor record of regulation, implementation and enforcement of quality standards on a range of items, both imported and locally-produced and both agricultural and non-agricultural, it remains to be seen whether these promises will be fulfilled.
Rational medium- to long-term possibilities for reducing the use of inorganic fertilizer while increasing yields of major food crops at a rate required to keep pace with increasing population and consequently increasing demand
A few medium- to long-term options, based on sound scientific principles, are available and are briefly discussed below:
Genetic modification of crops
In addressing the challenges of increasing crop yields while decreasing their use of nutrients (i.e. increasing the yield per unit nutrient used), scientists have been trying to modify the components and steps involved in the photosynthesis process via genetic engineering. One of their aims has been to produce a plant which achieves a higher photosynthetic rate with the same level of nitrogen used. After about two decades of research effort, a recent research publication in the prestigious science journal Nature reports of such a breakthrough in rice3. Reading through it carefully, I gather that this new genetically-modified rice plant (we call them ‘transgenic’ plants) has the potential to achieve a higher photosynthetic rate and grain yield with the same level of nitrogen as the ‘normal’ plants (which are not genetically-modified). However, this is possible under ‘well-fertilized conditions’ meaning that at the currently-used high nitrogen fertilizer rates4. This particular publication does not indicate whether such higher levels of photosynthesis and yields are possible at lower than ‘well-fertilized conditions’ which are likely to prevail in fields fertilized exclusively with organic fertilizer. Nevertheless, as Professor Stephen Long, a recognized world authority on photosynthesis states, the production of this transgenic rice plant could be a ‘game-changer’ to increase grain yield of rice without a proportionate increase in nitrogen input.
However, it should be noted that a considerable time could elapse from the point of producing a ‘transgenic’ plant to developing a new crop variety that could be released to the farmers for commercial cultivation. Yet, this appears to be a solid step in the right direction.
3 Long, S. P. (2020). Photosynthesis engineered to increase rice yield. Nature Food, 1(2), 105-105. A brief comment by Professor Stephen Long on the recent breakthrough in producing a genetically-modified rice plant which is able to achieve a higher photosynthetic rate and grain yield with the same amount of nitrogen.
4 Yoon, D. K., Ishiyama, K., Suganami, M., Tazoe, Y., Watanabe, M., Imaruoka, S., … & Makino, A. (2020). Transgenic rice overproducing Rubisco exhibits increased yields with improved nitrogen-use efficiency in an experimental paddy field. Nature Food, 1(2), 134-139. The research publication which describes the above breakthrough in photosynthesis and nitrogen use. Increasing the organic matter content in soils
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a component of the soil in addition to the soil particles. While the soil particles arise from weathering of rocks and minerals of the soil parent material, SOM arises from the decomposition of organic material added to the soil. SOM helps to retain nutrients and water in the top layers of the soil where most plant roots are also present. In addition, SOM helps to improve the aeration and structure in the soil, which are vital physical properties in the soil to facilitate plant growth.
Except the soils in the terraced plateaus of the Central Highlands, soils of almost all arable crop lands in Sri Lanka have inadequate SOM. This means that the ability of these soils to retain the nutrients that are added to them, especially in the form of readily-released inorganic fertilizer, is limited. Therefore, a concerted effort to increase the SOM status in Sri Lankan soils will enable reduction of leaching losses of nutrients and associated environmental consequences such as pollution of water sources. Increased SOM will also enable reduction of the amounts of inorganic fertilizer applied without causing a shortage of nutrients to the crops as a greater fraction of the applied fertilizer remains in the soil to be absorbed by the plants.
Therefore, while the total and immediate ban of inorganic fertilizer and replacing them with organic fertilizer will not provide the required nutrients in sufficient quantities, the large-scale application of organic fertilizer, if it happens as envisaged, will serve to increase the SOM of Sri Lankan soils in the medium- to long-term. This will make the Sri Lankan Agriculture sector less-reliant on inorganic fertilizers. However, this will have to be a gradual, phased-out transition rather than a sudden, unplanned total ban on inorganic fertilizers. Such a transition should be towards achieving an optimum balance of inorganic and organic fertilizers, which will ensure food security while protecting the environment. This is an endeavour that has been undertaken in many parts of the world, which include both the developed and developing countries, and is termed ‘Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture’5.
5 Baulcombe, D., Crute, I., Davies, B., Dunwell, J., Gale, M., Jones, J., … & Toulmin, C. (2009). Reaping the benefits: science and the sustainable intensification of global agriculture. The Royal Society. A very useful, concise, but comprehensive description of the salient features of sustainable intensification of agriculture written by a group
of experts from the Royal Society, UK. Can be accessed at https://royalsociety.org/topics-
policy/publications/2009/reaping-benefits/.
Philosophical approach should integrate sociological and psychological principles as an essential part of the campaign
by Prof. Athula Sumathipala
Clean Sri Lanka; what does it entail?
The mission of the “Clean Sri Lanka” project” is to reposition the nationwide efforts of environmental, social, and governance initiatives through introducing change, integration, and collaboration”.
As stated on its official website, “Clean Sri Lanka project aims to address a cleaner physical environment and a nationwide moral commitment to enhance ethical principles. Enhancement of the three pillars of sustainability; Economic, Social and Governance (EESG), have been identified as the framework to address the overarching objectives of this strategic plan with specific stakeholder goals, actions, time lines and outcomes”.
Human nature of resistance to change
Human nature is such that they are resistant to change. That is why so many people especially as organiations, when presented with a new initiative or idea—even a good one, with tons of benefits—will resist it.
We have already witnessed such resistance, in relation to the clean Sri Lanka project; threat to strikes, misinformation campaigns etc. No surprise. That resistance can also be easily exploited by the opportunists who wants to derail this programme for their own gains, no matter what the overall benefits the proposed programme brings.
The role of “proactive change management”
Proactive change management happens when leaders actively seek to manage the challenges and opportunities in a program. Every change projects comes with many unpredictable aspects. A proactive change manager will anticipate such potential challenges and plan for such problems well in advance. Thereby, they will be equipped to create contingency plans for unexpected challenges.
The role of the brain in facing changes
The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. They interpret sights, sounds and touches. It also regulates emotions, reasoning and learning.
Cerebellum maintains the balance, posture, coordination and fine motor skills.
Brainstem, regulates many automatic body functions.
Part of the brain, the amygdala interprets change as a threat and releases the hormones leading to fear, fight, or flight. (See Figure 1)
In particular, the function of the brain’s prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for complex thinking, self-regulation, and future orientation, is only completed around the age of 24.
Because the brain’s prefrontal cortex is still developing, teenagers rely more on a part of the brain called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems than adults. The amygdala is involved in emotions, impulses, aggression, and instinctual behaviour.
The limbic system, often referred to as the emotional centre of the brain, is responsible for processing emotions, forming memories, and regulating behaviour. It includes key structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, each playing a vital role in emotional and social processing.
Therefore, biologically, we can conclude that the younger generation acts more emotionally than rationally compared to the adults. However, that does not mean all adults are acting rationally. Understanding this phenomenon is in no way justifying and normalising it.
Hence, adolescents and also adults should learn about emotional regulation and improve their skills to communicate their frustrations, anger, disagreements in an acceptable and civilised manner.
Such frustrations, anger, disagreements are potential manifestations of the Clean Sri Lanka programme which could be easily exploited by opportunists.
That’s why the science and the art of science should be carefully integrated into proactive change management using cognitive behavioural principles, conformity theory and principles, as they are key components in this, Clean Sri Lanka project for successful implementation.
Emotional regulation
Emotional regulation is the conscious or unconscious processes of monitoring, evaluating, modulating, and managing emotional experiences and expression of emotion in terms of intensity, form, and duration of feelings, emotion related physiological states and behaviours.
Being able to regulate emotions is important since our emotions are closely connected to how we think and behave. Our thoughts and feelings help us to decide how best to respond to a situation and what action we should take. Essentially, emotional regulation can influence positive and negative behaviour.
Learning skills to regulate emotions means that, instead of acting impulsively and doing something that may be regretted later, we are able to make thought-out choices. It also helps out to manage our conflicts of interest or competing interests.
This means that we can learn to manage relationships with others, solve problems, and have better control over our behaviours.
To do so, one need to develop emotional intelligence. Positive attitudes and emotional intelligence go hand in hand. That is why it’s so important.
Attitude is a way of thinking or feeling about something, it’s a psychological construct which governs behaviours. Negative or destructive attitudes are like flat tyers, without changing one cannot go anywhere.
Emotional intelligence (EI)
In a book written by Daniel Goleman in 1995, on emotional intelligence theory, he outlined five components of EI: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.
Self-regulation; helps openness to change, motivation; helps a passion for work beyond monetary returns, energy and persistence, empathy; putting yourself in others’ shoes, social skills; ability to find common ground and rapport, and persuasiveness. People with EI makes good leaders as they can use their ability to recognise and understand their own emotions to make more informed and rational decisions. They can also use their ability to empathise with the emotions of their team members to take into account their perspectives and needs when making decisions
Emotional Intelligence can matter more than IQ; “intelligence quotient”. In his book, Goleman pointed out that emotional intelligence is as important as IQ for success, including in academic, professional, social, and interpersonal aspects of one’s life. It’s something which can be developed through coaching and mentoring.
Conformity principles
Conformity is a form of social influence that involves a change in the common belief or behaviour of a person or group of people to fit into how others are. This may have a good outcome or bad outcome.
Solomon Asch conducted several experiments in the 1950s to determine how people are affected by the thoughts and behaviours of other people. In one study, a group of participants was shown a series of printed line segments of different lengths: a, b, and c (Figure 1). Participants were then shown a fourth line segment: x. They were asked to identify which line segment from the first group (a, b, or c) most closely resembled the fourth line segment in length. (See Figure 2)
Each group of participants had only one true, outsider. The remaining members of the group were confederates of Ash. A confederate is a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher. Confederates are used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design, and the true, outside participants believe that confederates are, like them, uninformed participants in the experiment. In Asch’s study, the confederates identified a line segment that was shorter than the target line a, the wrong answer. The outside participant then had to identify aloud the line segment that best matched the target line segment.
Asch (1955) found that 76% of participants conformed to group pressure at least once by indicating the incorrect line. Conformity is the change in a person’s behavior to go along with the group, even if he does not agree with the group.
Research shows that the size of the majority, the presence of another dissenter, and the public or relatively private nature of responses are key influences on conformity.
The size of the majority: The greater the number of people in the majority, the more likely an individual will conform. In Asch’s study, conformity increased with the number of people in the majority, up to seven individuals. At numbers beyond seven, conformity leveled off and decreased slightly. The presence of another dissenter: If there is at least one dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero (Asch, 1955).
The correct answer to the line segment question was obvious, and it was an easy task. But the outsiders who participated in the study gave wrong answers. Researchers (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955) have categorized the motivation to conform into two types: normative social influence and informational social influence
In normative social influence, people conform to the group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group. However, with informational social influence, people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or situation is ambiguous.
So, what is happening in current society. The great majority of good people conform to the bad minority allowing the wrong thing to happen. Therefore, the very same conformity principles can be used by empowering the majority of good people not to conform to the bad or wrong minority.
To achieve that people should get out of the “learned helplessness” mode, which was described by Seligman in 1976. Learned helplessness is what social science researchers call it when a person is unable to find resolutions to difficult situations, even when a solution is accessible. People that struggle with learned helplessness tend to complain a lot, feeling overwhelmed and incapable of making any positive difference in their circumstances. The feel that they are powerless to change others who have conformed to the “norm”. They give up and just get one.
There is also the bystander effect, or bystander apathy. Social psychological theory states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim or initiate an action in the presence of other people. They simply assume that the other person will do it. If everybody expects the other person will do ultimately no one will do it.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists explain human behavior as a result of the relationship between mental states and social situations, studying the social conditions under which thoughts, feelings, and behaviors occur, and how these variables influence social interactions.
The best way to describe what to do in the context of all the above phenomena are operating, is using Cognitive behavioural theory and interventions based on that. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory states that human thinking determines human behaviour and feeling. Therefore, by changing one you can change the other.
The triad; behaviors, thoughts and feelings
The basis of cognitive behavioral theory is that a person’s thoughts, ideas, and beliefs underpin their emotional reactions and behaviors. (See Figure 2)
As described in the above diagram we have assumptions and core beliefs about us, the others, the future, the country, the world and so on. We call it a schemata. We process information using these schemata. Some of these can be positive and useful (functional) and some are negative and counterproductive.
The easiest way to understand this is to learn about Kisa Gothami’s story. When Kisa Gothami’s newborn son died, she did not realize so and she ran to Lord Buddha asking him to cure her son. Lord Buddha at once knew that the baby was dead but wanted Kisa Gothami to learn about death herself. Lord Buddha asked her to find a handful of mustard seeds from a household where no one has died. She went knocking on all the doors in the village but could not find a single house without a death in the family. Soon she realized the lesson Lord Buddha was trying to teach her: that no family is spared the occurrence of death. Lord Buddha used a bahaviour to teach Kisa Gothami to change the way she thinks about death. We call it cognitive restructuring.
Compatibilities between cognitive approaches to therapy, such as CBT, and Buddhism have been acknowledged by its originators Aron Beck (2005) and Kwee & Ellis (1998).
Our nation needs mass scale cognitive behavioural interventions to change the way they think about many things; us, others, future, country, what is rights and wrongs, one’s responsibilities and duties. We need to change our learned helplessness mentality created through the so-called bankrupt society that has no future.
Without addressing these assumptions, core beliefs, and thinking errors; the schemata, by using scientific principle and interventions, to change the crucial behaviors and thinking neither the President nor 159 MPs alone will be able to do much for the nation who expect a paradigm shift in the development of a nation. Their duty was not finished by voting a new President and a Government into power with the 2/3rd majority.
Each citizen who is seriously thinking of a prosperous nation need to change first to change the country and it;s wrong doings. If you want the Government to stop bribery and corruption you need to first stop offering bribes. Reflect on your self first and also inculcate such attitudes in the younger generations with optimism.
Role of media in behavioural change
The media has an undisputed role in influencing behavioral change by shaping public opinion, disseminating information, and creating awareness.
Raising awareness through campaigns can promote positive behaviors, changing stereotypes, bringing progressive narratives. modeling behaviors in films or on social media, can inspire individuals to adopt similar behaviors.
Creating social pressure through peer Influence challenging conformity, learned helplessness, conducting campaigns on social media encouraging widespread behavioral change, educating and empowering, supporting and influencing public policy and reinforcing positive behaviors are a few.
However, be mindful that media is a double-edged sword, it can inspire positive change when used responsibly but can also perpetuate negative behaviors if misused. Its influence on behavior depends largely on the accuracy, ethics, and creativity of the content it disseminates.
Be mindful, for the first time in history, the essential and fundamental conditions; objective and subjective, have come together offering a golden opportunity for a genuine change. The political leadership should not leave any stone unturned to use the scientific advances of science relevant to
three fundamental components: biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. These elements are not isolated; they interact dynamically to shape the way we perceive the world and respond to it. They should understand how these foundational aspects of behavior provide a framework for understanding the complex nature of human actions and how to change them.
The author of this article is an internationally renowned academic with a strong track record in research especially carried out in Sri Lanka using cognitive behavioural principles. Some of his interventions are considered front line in post disaster situations.
He is an Emeritus Professor at Kings College London and Keele University. He is also the Director, Institute for Research and Development in Health and Social care and the Chairman of the National Institute of Fundamental Studies.
He had been an invited plenary speaker at the 11th International Congress on Behavioural Medicine, Washington DC, USA (August 2010), 19th World Psychiatric Association (WPA), World Congress of Psychiatry, Portugal, Lisbon (August, 2019). Melbourne, Australia (February, 2018). 16th Congress of the International Federation of Psychiatric Epidemiology Melbourne, Australia (Oct, 2017), Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (RANZAP) Napier, New Zealand (Oct 2007), to name a few related to cognitive behavioral theory/therapy.
by Ifham Nizam
In a world grappling with the realities of climate change, understanding how plants adapt to environmental stressors is more critical than ever. A groundbreaking study led by Dr. Kaushalya Rathnayake and Amy L. Parachnowitsch at the University of New Brunswick offers compelling insights into how drought influences the evolution of floral traits in Brassica rapa, commonly known as field mustard.
Published in the Annals of Botany, the study reveals the dual pressures exerted by drought and pollinators on the plant’s evolution. The researchers used controlled experiments to manipulate water availability and pollination methods, simulating real-world scenarios where plants must adapt to survive.
Speaking to The Island, Dr. Rathnayake added: “Drought isn’t just a physical stressor—it’s an evolutionary force.” The research found that drought conditions strongly select for earlier flowering. This adaptation, known as “drought escape,” allows plants to complete their lifecycle quickly before resources are depleted.
However, he said that this survival strategy comes at a cost. Plants exposed to drought produced fewer flowers and seeds compared to those in well-watered conditions. Despite these reductions, pollinators continued to influence flower size, suggesting that even under stress, the relationship between plants and pollinators remains pivotal.
“Our results show that drought not only changes plant traits but also alters how natural selection acts on those traits,” he noted.
The study also highlights the critical role of pollinators in shaping floral characteristics. While drought drove selection for earlier flowering, pollinators influenced flower size, favouring larger flowers even in water-stressed conditions. “Pollinators seem to prefer larger flowers, and this preference drives their evolution, regardless of the challenges posed by drought,” Dr. Rathnayake added.
Interestingly, the researchers found that plants subjected to hand pollination did not perform as well as those left to natural pollination, suggesting that human interventions might not always replicate the nuanced relationships plants share with their pollinators.
Implications for agriculture and biodiversity
These findings have far-reaching implications for agriculture and conservation. As climate change intensifies, understanding how plants adapt to stressors like drought is crucial for developing resilient crop varieties. “Our work provides a framework for predicting how plants might respond to future environmental challenges,” said Dr. Rathnayake.
The research also underscores the importance of conserving pollinator populations. “Pollinators are not just visitors; they are active participants in the evolutionary process,” added Amy Parachnowitsch, the study’s co-author.
The study serves as a reminder of the complex interplay between environmental and biological factors in shaping ecosystems. As climate change alters precipitation patterns and increases the frequency of droughts, plants like B. rapa will continue to evolve. The question remains: will they adapt quickly enough to keep pace with a rapidly changing world?
By combining scientific rigour with ecological insight, Rathnayake and Parachnowitsch’s work sheds light on the mechanisms of plant resilience, offering hope and direction in the face of global climate challenges.
Drought and Evolution: How Kaushalya unveils Nature’s adaptive dance
As climate change tightens its grip on ecosystems worldwide, drought has emerged as one of its most devastating symptoms. Beyond its visible impacts on agriculture and water resources, drought silently shapes the evolution of plants and their relationships with pollinators. In a pioneering study, Kaushalya Rathnayake, an evolutionary ecologist, sheds light on these intricate dynamics. His research on Brassica rapa offers profound insights into how plants adapt to water scarcity while negotiating their dependence on pollinators.
The evolutionary adaptations to drought
“Drought is more than a stressor; it’s a driver of evolution,” Dr. Rathnayake explained. His research reveals that in water-scarce environments, plants accelerate their life cycles, prioritiaing reproduction over growth. “We found that plants experiencing drought conditions tend to flower earlier than those in well-watered environments,” he said.
This evolutionary strategy ensures that plants can produce seeds before resources are completely depleted. Dr. Rathnayake’s experiments with Brassica rapa, a plant known for its short lifecycle, demonstrated how environmental pressures like drought independently drive selection for earlier flowering. “It’s nature’s way of adapting to a harsh reality,” he added.
While drought influences when plants flower, pollinators shape how they bloom. The research also delves into the role of pollinators during periods of water scarcity. “Pollinators become more selective when floral resources are limited, favouring larger, more attractive flowers,” he explained. This behaviour exerts evolutionary pressure, encouraging plants to develop traits that maximise their appeal to pollinators despite challenging conditions.
These dual influences – drought and pollinators – highlight the complexity of plant survival strategies. Rathnayake emphasised, “The interplay between abiotic stressors like drought and biotic agents like pollinators is key to understanding plant evolution in a changing climate.”
Kaushalya taking phenotypic measurements, soil water contents of Brassica rapa plants in the lab
A Lifetime of ecological curiosity
Kaushalya Rathnayake’s journey into the world of biodiversity began in the lush landscapes of Kandy, Sri Lanka. Inspired by the rich flora and fauna of his homeland, he pursued a degree in biodiversity conservation at the Rajarata University. His early work focused on pollination networks in Sri Lanka’s dry zones, laying the foundation for his future studies.
After contributing to environmental initiatives in Sri Lanka, Rathnayake moved to Canada to advance his academic pursuits. At Memorial University, he explored the interactions between mosses and flies. Now, as a PhD graduate from the University of New Brunswick, Dr. Rathnayake applies his expertise to both research and industry. He works as an Integrated Pest Management Specialist and shares his knowledge as a sessional instructor.
Implications for global biodiversity
Rathnayake’s findings have far-reaching implications. “If drought continues to drive earlier flowering and pollinator relationships become mismatched, entire ecosystems could destabilise,” he warned. Such mismatches could lead to reduced crop yields, threatening food security.
He advocates for a multi-pronged approach to tackle these challenges. “We need policies that address water scarcity, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and protect pollinator populations,” he urged.
As ecosystems face increasing pressure from climate change, Rathnayake’s research serves as a clarion call. By unraveling the intricate connections between plants and their environment, he underscores the urgent need for collective action. “The survival of biodiversity hinges on understanding these dynamics and acting swiftly to mitigate their impacts,” he concluded.
Through his work, Rathnayake exemplifies how curiosity and dedication can illuminate the path to sustainability, reminding us that every small action matters in preserving the intricate web of life on Earth.
Double Whammy: Drought and pollinator mismatch
Flowering plants (angiosperms) rely heavily on pollinators like bees for reproduction and genetic exchange. However, with increasing water scarcity and prolonged droughts becoming a global phenomenon, both plants and their pollinators are experiencing significant disruptions.
The study highlights how water stress alters flower morphology, blooming patterns, and pollinator interactions. Flowers under drought conditions bloom earlier, produce fewer blossoms, and often exhibit changes in shape and size. These alterations not only reduce the plants’ reproductive success but also confuse pollinators, who struggle to recognize the flowers they depend on for food.
Dr. Amy Parachnowitsch, Associate professor, Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB Canada
Key Findings from the Study
Earlier flowering under drought:
Plants exposed to water scarcity accelerated their life cycle, prioritising reproduction over prolonged growth. This adaptation helps them ensure the survival of their genetic material in challenging environments.
Selective pollinator preferences:
During drought, pollinators showed increased selectivity, preferring larger and more conspicuous flowers. This suggests that only plants that adapt their floral traits to attract pollinators may thrive under water-scarce conditions.
Reduced yield and biodiversity risks:
Drought drastically reduced flower, fruit, and seed production. This not only threatens agricultural yields but also endangers plant species’ long-term survival and biodiversity.
Why this research matters
This study bridges the gap between climate change, ecology, and evolution. It underscores the cascading effects of drought on ecosystems, from disrupting the balance between plants and pollinators to threatening agricultural productivity and biodiversity.
Implications for conservation and agriculture
The findings call for urgent attention to climate-resilient agricultural practices and ecosystem conservation strategies. Protecting pollinators and ensuring sustainable water management are critical to maintaining the delicate balance of ecosystems.
Therefore, the stark reality is that until 974 MCM of water is available, the vast network of infrastructure under the NWSIP Programme would be conveying ONLY 223 MCM of water. This is a colossal waste of capital and resources. So, there is an urgent necessity for the NPP government to insist that the NWSIP curtail its current programme and limit it to the demands in the North Central Province.
by Neville Ladduwahetty
Dr. Rohan Pethiyagoda in his article titled, “Mahaweli Water Security Project: AKD’S first failure in the making?”, describing the programme to transfer Water to the North: “Through a system of reservoirs, canals and tunnels, this ambitious initiative seeks to divert surplus Mahaweli to the island’s North Central Province (NCP), Northwestern Province (NWP), and eventually further north, reaching up to Chemamadu Kulum Tank in the Northern Province” (Daily FT, January 7, 2025).
Regardless of whose vision it was to transfer water to the North, it is the Mahaweli Water Security Investment Programme (NWSIP) that has to be held responsible and accountable for the particular manner in which the vision is made a reality.
Rohan Pethiyagoda says the NWSIP Programme has three components. “The first involves the rehabilitation of the 74 km-long Minipe Left-bank Canal and its associated infrastructure. This component he labels as “good news” and the rest as “downhill”. The remaining components are associated with the Upper Elahera Canal starting from Moragahakanda.
THE UPPER ELAHERA CANAL
As stated in the article cited below: “The Upper Elahera Canal (UEC) was conceived with the objective of transferring water from the Moragahakanda reservoir in the Central Province to existing reservoirs in the North Central Province and eventually to water deficit areas in the North via a 92-km canal that includes a 27.7-km tunnel. The UEC is designed to convey 974 MCM (Million Cubic Meters) of water annually. This design capacity is based on the premise that 772 MCM of water would be transferred north starting from Randenigala to Moragahakanda through a series of reservouirs and canals, first to Kalu Ganga and eventually to Moragahakanda” (https://island.lk/revisiting-ongoing-upper-elahera-canal-project).
“Since the infrastructure needed to transfer 772 MCM from Randenigala has not commenced, and is not likely to become operational for well over a decade, the only water that would be available at Moragahakanda during the interim would be what is transferred from Bowatenna (496 MCM) and from its own catchment (344 MCM) making a total of 840 MCM. However, before any water could be conveyed to the North Central Province through the UEC, water has to be diverted to the Minneriya Yoda Ela (617 MCM) to irrigate lands served by the Minneriya, Kaudulla, Kantalai and Giritale tanks (Ibid).
Therefore, the stark reality is that until 974 MCM of water is available, the vast network of infrastructure under the NWSIP Programme would be conveying ONLY 223 MCM of water. This is a colossal waste of capital and resources. So, there is an urgent necessity for the NPP government to insist that the NWSIP curtail its current programme and limit it to the demands in the North Central Province.
The alternative source of water to the Northern Province should be based on the seminal work of the former Senior Deputy Director, Irrigation Dept. S. Arumugam; it contains a wealth of information relating to past and present Irrigation in his book “Water Resources of Ceylon”. Apparently, Iranamadu Kulam (82,000 ac. ft) “was the first tank to be constructed by the Irrigation Department”. However, Arumugam also refers to several ancient tanks whose antiquities are not known, such as Akkarayan Kulam (17,000 ac ft); Kalmadu Kulam (9,150 ac. ft); Muthu Iyan Kaddu Kulam (41,000 ac. ft); Thannimurippu Kulam 15,000 ac. ft) assigned to King Aggabodhi [575 -608], Furthermore, what is remarkable is the fact that the cumulative capacity of ONLY these 4 ancient tanks match the capacity of Iranamadu Kulam, demonstrating that the practice of harnessing North-East Monsoonal rains to irrigate the North was clearly an ancient irrigation practice.
CONCLUSION
The NPP government should ensure the revised NWSIP Programme incorporates the following:
1. Reject the concept of “Water to the North” by transferring water from Randenigala to Moragahakanda.
2. Reduce the scale and scope of the current NWSIP Programme and transfer available water at Moragahakanda to the NCP via the UEC.
3. Water for the Northern Province to be based on harvesting N/E monsoonal rains as practised historically.
4. Revisit power generation with Mahaweli water and double the capacity of the Victoria Hydro Power Project.
If the NPP government is serious about avoiding “failure”, the recommendations cited above should be given the attention it deserves. Furthermore, by implementing the recommendations cited above, the NPP government will be conforming to the objectives of the Original Master Plan signed in (1964) between the government of Sri Lanka and the United Nations Special Fund, which was to irrigate the dry zone of the North Central Province.
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