Features
Tea and its distant past, a history of its origin and proliferation over the centuries
by ACB Pethiyagoda
It is presumed that the first newspaper advertisement connected to tea sales appeared in the London Mercurius Politicos of September 23, 1658. It read: “That excellent and by all physicians approved China drink called by the Chinese Teha, by other nations Tay alias Tee is sold at Cophee House, London.”
It is also presumed that brewed tea was a fashionable drink among the wealthiest in society as they thought it ‘cleans the spleen, kidneys, eyes, liver, improves the appetite, digestion, cures fevers, colds, dropsy, scurvy” and many other ailments and maladies. In short a `kokatath thailaya’!
Origin of the brew
From where did this wonder find its way to Europe? China. Tea was known in that country during the Han Dynasty (206 BC -220 AD) as evidenced from archaeological findings in more recent times. It started first as a cottage industry to serve royalty and nobility and thereafter developed into a large scale, well organized industry. Therefore, by the time of the Tang Dynasty (220 AD – 618 AD), it was a popular national drink among all classes.
The origin of tea goes back beyond 200 or 300 BC. The story goes that when a king broke journey while traveling and when cooking was in progress, some dried leaves of a wild tree were blown into a pot of boiling water. The brew was pleasant and invigorating. The Assamese, not to be left out, claimed a similar experience. With them it was not a king but native tribes who found the brew good.
Tea was introduced to England and other European countries by the East India Company – a company formed in 1600 AD in England with extensive trading connections all over the East. It owned a fleet of ships; large extents of land in various countries; and had an army to further its business interests and protect its officers. By 1839 indigenous tea was well established in Assam in plantations owned by the East India Company and British entrepreneurs. There was also tea of Chinese origin from seed brought by the Company way back in the late 1700s.
Darjeeling, about 7,000 ft above sea level, was another area in which by 1789 there were a hundred estates covering over 18,000 acres producing excellent teas with a distinctive natural fragrance making these the benchmark against which other teas were compared. Darjeeling teas are like champagne from the Champagne region of France!
To encourage rapid expansion of tea plantations in India, the British leased land to prospectors on easy terms – the first quarter of the extent free of rent for all time, the balance rent free for fifteen years and thereafter payment at nominal rates.
Tea growing in Nilgiris in South India came in later – around the 1880s and still later in some African countries, Burma, Indonesia, and Vietnam.
Early planters
The first European planters in India were “in those days a strange medley of retired or cashiered Army and Navy officers, medical men, stable keepers, clerks and goodness knows who besides”. Their bungalows were of wattle and daub with thatched roofs. They ate rough, worked tirelessly, drank hard and believed that liquor kept malaria and cholera away. Death due to these was common and their incidence among the workers widespread.
Most of the early planters came out single but “some took Indian mistresses, usually surreptitiously, for there was no prospect of such women being accepted in European society. Such liaisons would be invariable for a new planter wanting to understand a totally new culture and learn the language. These sleeping dictionaries were a feature of planting life and were tolerated if discreet.”
Tea is a labour intensive crop – about 1.25 units of labour per acre for mature tea and 1.5 for land in tea with more land being opened up. This requirement was satisfied locally and any shortfall being made good from the neighbourhood. Workers lived under appalling conditions in makeshift shelters and were treated harshly with whipping of men, women and children as punishment for poor output until 1843 when slavery was abolished in British India. High mortality was due mainly to illness. difficult and unhealthy working conditions and malnutrition. Clerks, supervisors and other staff were drawn from educated locals.
Sri Lankan history
In Ceylon, cinchona was the first plantation crop with about 4,000 acres in 1883 but it went bust when the price of quinine, its commercial product, dropped drastically the world over. The investors in land were the British officials including the Governor and the Chief Justice. The first lands leased were around Kandy, Gampola, Dolosbage and Kadugannawa in around 1825 – just 10 years after the signing of the Kandyan Convention; the British losing no time in the plunder.
Most of this land “was regarded as crown land and available for acquisition by any and everyone with a fair skin. Any title the natives of Ceylon might have had was ignored and much common land was sequestered. In addition, although this was illegal, the inhabitants of entire villages inconveniently located in the midst of land required by the British were expelled.” The adverse effects of this Draconian law – the Waste Lands Ordinance – is still evident in the Kandyan areas.
Coffee was planted on a small scale from Dutch times in Ceylon and became a replacement for cinchona with about 37,000 acres in 1845. In 1869, the coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) wiped the crop out. Fortunately for the planters, tea was already known and accepted as a profitable crop and the lands cleared for coffee were gradually planted in tea.
Labour for coffee and later tea was mainly from South India brought by contractors or kanganies to whom planters paid for every able bodied man, woman or even child who could be put to work. From the wages of the workers, the kanganies collected ‘pence money’, a levy for recruiting them, which they had to pay throughout their working lives. The labourers were eternally in debt, while the kanganies often became wealthy.
The workers’ lives were hard but probably better than that in the villages they left in South India which were often racked with famine. The first batches came along the ‘North Road’ – Talaimannar to the Hill Country through thick jungle with many dying on the way. In later years, limited numbers were brought by boat to Colombo, mostly for the low country estates.
Just as in India, “The early planters of the 19th century had come in via coffee and were mostly working class. They might have been trained gardeners, or perhaps served in the ranks of the army. Their manners were rough, especially if they were single.” All this did not prevent them from assuming the ranks of Captain, Major etc depending on the size of the plantation and their success as planters!
The history of tea in Ceylon goes back to 1839 when some seed from Assam was put out in what was to be the Royal Botanical Gardens in Peradeniya. (The Gardens were established by the British in 1921 where previously this area was the pleasure garden of the Kandyan kings). Since then consignments of seed and even seedlings were received and planted in various parts of the present day tea growing areas; Rothschild in Pussellawa and Labookelle Estates in Ramboda being the first two and Hakgalla Gardens also.
However, the first commercial planting was on Loolecondra Estate in Hewaheta – a block of 19 acres by the famous James Taylor in 1867. Since then the acreage increased gradually to 9,300 in 1880, 525,600 in 2002, and 548,263 in 2011.
Today when we see attractive advertisements in glossy magazines of steaming tea in bone China cups with silver spoons, jugs and bowls on crisp linen; and row upon row of tea in eye catching packs in grocery stores, how many realize that these are the result of untold hardships suffered by countless men, women and children; from about 200 years before Christ for millions of others to enjoy now without a second thought. There are many other benefits we are recipients of and little thought is given to them. If this was not so we would grumble less when minor situations go wrong.
References:
A Brief History of Tea by Roy Maxham A Hundred Years of Ceylon Tea by D M Forrrest
(This article was first published in this newspaper in Oct. 2012. The late writer was a senior tea planter who later worked for Ceylon Tobacco Co. in its agricultural development projects)
Features
Combining local resources,traditional knowledge and science to build a food-secure Sri Lanka
World Food Day 2026: Innovating today for a better food future
by Dr. Kaushalya Wijayasekara
What will be on the Sri Lankan dinner table ten years from now? Will our children be able to get nutritious food at a price their families can afford? Will farmers be able to grow enough despite changing weather and rising costs? And how much of the food we produce will actually reach the consumer, instead of being lost or wasted along the way?
These questions can’t wait. A farmer faces unpredictable weather. A family faces rising food costs. Fruit goes unsold after a good harvest. Some children do not get enough nutrition. The future of food is tied to the future of Sri Lanka itself.
World Food Day 2026 is a chance to look beyond the immediate problems and ask whether we can build a food system that feeds our people well, gives farmers better opportunities, protects the environment and makes better use of what we already have. The answer can be yes, but we will have to think differently.
We are not starting from zero. Sri Lanka has diverse crops, fisheries, traditional food knowledge, indigenous varieties, research institutions, universities and a young generation able to create new solutions. What we need is to bring these together and act. Producing more will not secure our food future on its own. It will depend on how intelligently we produce, process, preserve, distribute and consume food.
Making more of what we already have
Innovation does not always mean inventing something new. Often it means finding better uses for the resources we have.
Sri Lanka grows traditional rice varieties, kurakkan, green gram, cowpea, jackfruit, breadfruit, cassava, sweet potato, coconut and palmyrah. All of them have great potential for modern, nutritious, value-added foods. Jackfruit and breadfruit can be made into flour and other convenient products. Traditional rice varieties can go into new foods that suit changing consumer needs. Palmyrah, with its strong cultural heritage, can create new income through better processing, packaging, quality assurance and market development.
The aim is to connect our traditional food knowledge with modern consumer needs and technology, while keeping our food heritage.
Stop wasting the food we produce
Reducing food loss and waste should be a major priority. Seasonal fruits such as mango, banana, papaya and pineapple can be lost in large quantities when production exceeds demand or when storage, transport and processing facilities are inadequate. With suitable technology, these fruits can become dried products, pulps, powders, beverages and other shelf-stable foods.
Agricultural and fisheries by-products are resources too. They could be turned into food ingredients, animal feed, bio-based products and other useful materials, which would move us toward a more circular food economy.
Technology alone is not enough. We need stronger local processing facilities, cold storage, efficient transport, collection centres and market information systems, especially close to where food is produced. Cutting food loss raises the value of what our farmers and fishers already produce.
Nutrition and food safety come first
Food security means more than having enough food. People also need food that is safe and nutritious.
Sri Lanka can develop affordable, nutritious foods from local pulses, grains, vegetables, fruits and fish. Children and other vulnerable groups should get particular attention. Schoolchildren in particular deserve a focus: safe, nutritious, locally sourced products for school feeding programs would support child nutrition, local farmers and domestic food industries at the same time.
Food safety must stay at the centre of food innovation. Good hygiene, quality control, laboratory testing, traceability and appropriate food safety systems are what make new products safe as well as attractive and nutritious.
A food system that can cope with climate change
Climate change is already affecting agricultural production, water availability, crop yields and food prices. We need food systems that can handle changing conditions. That means climate-resilient crops, efficient water use, soil and water conservation, better storage and resource-efficient food processing.
Traditional knowledge matters here. Generations of Sri Lankan farmers have developed practices suited to local climates and ecosystems. Combining that experience with modern science can give us solutions that fit local conditions and are sustainable. Technology alone will not build the future of food. Science, experience and local knowledge together can.
Give young people a bigger role
Sri Lanka’s universities have an important part to play in shaping our food future. Young people should be encouraged to identify real problems in the food system and work on practical solutions in areas such as food waste, sustainable packaging, nutrition, food safety, modernising traditional foods and digital technologies.
A good research project should not always end as a research paper. Where appropriate, research should be supported to move on to products, technologies, enterprises and community solutions. That needs stronger partnerships between universities and industry, along with mentoring, research funding, business support and market connections. If young researchers and entrepreneurs can turn their ideas into viable food innovations, both consumers and producers will benefit.
A pathway designed for Sri Lanka
We do not need to copy food-system models from other countries. We can build a pathway that suits our own resources, culture and needs. It would bring together local resources, traditional knowledge, scientific research, appropriate technology and entrepreneurship, with farmers, fishers, universities, research institutions, food industries, entrepreneurs and policymakers working side by side.
The goal goes beyond selling raw materials. We need to create more value, reduce waste, improve nutrition, generate jobs and strengthen rural livelihoods. This matters especially for small and medium-scale food enterprises, which can drive local economic development when they get the right technical, financial and market support.
The choices we make today
The food future will not create itself. It will be shaped by what we grow, what we research, what we process, what we consume and what we choose not to waste.
So, the question for World Food Day 2026 is this: what can we do today so that every Sri Lankan has safe, nutritious, affordable and sustainable food tomorrow?
The answers are already around us, in our farms, fisheries, food businesses, universities, laboratories and communities. We have the resources, the traditional knowledge, the scientific expertise and talented young people. What we need now is to connect them and act.
A better food future begins with the choices we make today.
Dr. Kaushalya Wijayasekara
Senior Lecturer, Department of Biosystems Technology, Faculty of Technology, University of Ruhuna
Features
20th Anniversary of Digampathana blast – the day Sri Lanka Navy cried
By Admiral Ravindra C Wijegunaratne
WV, RWP and Bar, RSP, VSV, USP, NI (M) (Pakistan), ndc, psn, Bsc
(Hons) (War Studies) (Karachi) MPhil (Madras)
Former Navy Commander and Former Chief of Defence Staff
Former Chairman, Trincomalee Petroleum Terminals Ltd
Former Managing Director Ceylon Petroleum Corporation
Former High Commissioner to Pakistan
The Digampathana suicide truck attack on 16th October 2006 remains the deadliest single strike in Sri Lanka Navy history, leaving scars that time cannot erase.
It was a seemingly ordinary Monday morning on 16 October 2006, but the calm of that day would soon be shattered in a way none of us could have imagined. As the Commandant of the Naval and Maritime Academy and Flag Officer Commanding Naval Fleet at Trincomalee, I was aware that a number of my cadets were travelling that morning, part of a convoy of fifteen buses carrying naval personnel from Trincomalee, Colombo, and other bases, heading toward Dambulla to rendezvous with another group. The convoy also included trucks and escort vehicles, a routine movement planned and coordinated with the army to ensure the roads were clear. The morning started quietly. Some personnel greeted friends, handed over their weapons, or strolled to a nearby tea shop. It all seemed so ordinary—too ordinary for what would come next.

Sri Lanka Navy sunk LTTE Ships carrying arms, ammunition and warlike materials thousand miles away from Sri Lanka in Indian Ocean in September and October 2007.
By late morning, both convoys had reached the small ground at Digampathana, near the Sigiriya junction, and personnel mingled briefly, unaware that a carefully orchestrated act of terror was waiting. Then, suddenly, an empty half-truck veered directly into the convoy. It exploded with a ferocity I can still recall as if it were yesterday. Nuts, bolts, and high explosives tore through the air. Pandemonium erupted instantly. I later learned that 107 of our naval personnel were killed on the spot and another 153 critically injured. The scene was indescribable—bodies scattered, vehicles mangled, personal effects strewn across the ground. I remember later hearing that the head of the suicide bomber was recovered more than 100 meters away from the blast, a grim testament to the sheer force of the explosion.
I was in my office at the Naval and Maritime Academy when my mobile phone rang. A young midshipman from the 21st intake called, his voice trembling: “Sir, there was a huge explosion at the convoy point! Many are dead … my batch mate Wijesundara is among them.” I immediately jumped into my jeep with my escort Chief Petty Officer and driver and rushed to Digampathana, relying on every ounce of my driving skill to reach the scene. The journey, which usually took little more than an hour, felt endless that day, each passing mile weighed down by dread.
When I arrived, I was confronted with a sight that no training can prepare you for. The injured were being rushed to Dambulla Hospital, where doctors and nurses worked tirelessly, improvising in ways that saved lives despite the overwhelming chaos. I went back to the site after visiting the hospital. The remains of our naval personnel were scattered across the ground, and someone had begun collecting weapons and protective gear. I immediately contacted Surgeon Rear Admiral Nico Jayasekara and received his instructions: collect all body parts in separate bags and transport them to the Trincomalee Naval Hospital mortuary. This gruesome work had to be done with care and dignity, and it filled the icebox in my vehicle. Through DNA testing initiated by Rear Admiral Nico, we were able to identify every naval personnel lost that day, bringing some closure to grieving families.
The Navy Commander at the time, Vice Admiral Wasantha Karannagoda, was devastated. I had worked closely with him and knew how deeply he cared for his men. He ensured that the fallen were honoured with full ceremonial naval funerals at Welisara Naval Base, attended by families and comrades. Sixty-seven funerals were conducted in a single day—a number that still haunts me.
The Digampathana attack remains the largest single loss of naval life in our history. It was a day of sorrow, but also a day that reinforced our resolve. The tragedy galvanized the Navy to target the LTTE Sea Tiger wing with renewed determination and reshaped our maritime operations forever. Every time I think of that day, I remember not just the lives lost, but the courage, professionalism, and dedication of those who survived, those who treated the injured, and those who ensured the fallen were honored properly. May the souls of our naval hero’s rest in peace, their sacrifice guiding us and inspiring generations of naval personnel to come.
Features
‘Murder at Whitby Abbey’
Tales of Mystery and Suspense – 24
I was intrigued by the title of a book I found in a book drop at the condominium of a friend, Murder at Whitby Abbey, and I brought it home with me though I will not be able to return it in the near future. It was described on the cover page as ‘a standout in the crowded medieval mystery field’, though I fear I do not know of other books in this field, apart from the Cadfael series, which I have dealt with earlier.
The book, by Cassandra Clark, is set during the reign of Richard II and has as a backdrop his precarious position, which led to his being replaced, and murdered, by his cousin Henry, who reigned as Henry IV. It is a gloomy book, the action taking place in the twelve days of Christmas leading up to the Epiphany. And the gloom is pervasive, even though this is supposed to be a time of festivity, with mummers performing, and many of those in the guest house where the heroine stays going to town to enjoy themselves, with much drinking and much music, which also fills the guesthouse.
The heroine Hildegarde is a nun, sent to try to acquire a relic being sold by Whitby Abbey, though this was also a penance set by the Abbot of the monastery that governed her abbess because she had had sex with a man. Soon after she and her companions reach the Abbey set high on a cliff, she finds that there are other bidders, and soon suspects that the hierarchy, not perhaps the Abbot who seems a weakling, but his rapacious bursar, is determined to make money, and not above creating false relics to sell to several aspirants.
After Hildegarde and her Cistercian companions – Whitby is a Benedictine Foundation – two monks, Gregory and Egbert, and a young priest Mark, reach the abbey, they find that Aelwyn, a monk they had met on their way to the guesthouse had died. This was in the apple store, and they realize, when they find the surplices of novices stuffed into the air vents, that he had been left to suffocate in the overwhelming scent of apples.
The Cistercians are asked to look into the death, perhaps because they are likely to get no cooperation from the Abbey folk, but perhaps because those in charge are keen to know what happened. And the infirmarer, an old monk, suggests Hildegarde talk to a man called Edred who worked for the bursar, and had been a friend of Aelwyn’s. But Edred too is killed, before he can keep an appointment he had made with Hildegarde, drowned in a pool near the farmhouse of the Abbey.
Meanwhile tensions arise between the fisherfolk and the abbey for the bursar wants to charge them for using the beach that technically belongs to the abbey to dry their fish and their nets. This leads to physical battles, when the guards used by the abbey, under the command it seems of the bursar whose determination to make money is not resisted by the abbot and the prior, try to storm the area where the fishermen live.
Hildegard finds out more about what had happened through two youngsters, one of whom Torold is the son of Aelwyn by a woman who worked as a prostitute for a cartel, and with whom Mark fell in love. The other works on the farm and had seen Edred meet someone near the pool, after which that someone left the place by himself. And the boy had also found in the pool a sort of dagger with the seal of the abbey.
He and his dog, and Torold who follows her, rescue Hildegarde from a man at arms who has waylaid her and tries to rape her earlier. Escaping into the abbey she was nearly been raped then by the bursar, but she managed to escape, in the process setting fire to him and the muniments room, which led, when he was rescued, to the discovery of a box with the money he said had been stolen, blame being cast on both Aelwyn and Edred.
Matters come to a head when the fisherfolk try to storm the abbey, being resisted by the men at arms stationed on the towers. But then Hildegarde realizes that behind the murders was the bursar’s clerk, whom she pursued to the cathedral. There is great drama then as she escapes from him when he tries to kill her, and then from the man at arms who had tried to both rape and kill her, but they both fall from the scaffolding she had climbed, the latter coming from a tower where he had been stationed.
Both of them think they run the rapacity of the abbey, the latter claiming to work for the nobles opposed to Richard, who is presented throughout the book as devoted to his subjects, not to power or money. But though the villains die, the bursar continues, having got over the hysteria the fire had caused and his acknowledgment then of guilt – and though the abbot and the prior seem less vicious, whether they will be able to assert themselves is questionable.
Before the climax, when the others in the guesthouse were leaving, Hildegarde found that two of them were in possession of the relic, for which they seem to have paid well. Hildegarde herself had made a derisory offer, but before she leaves the abbot gives her the relic, perhaps in gratitude for what she and her fellow Cistercians had discovered, the abbey having made as much money as it needed and more from the gullible other buyers.
Mark’s inamorata is saved from the stews because she moves in with Edred’s widow whom the bursar had thrown out of the rooms he occupied when her husband was found dead. Hildegarde had paid for lodgings, in a house run by the man who ran the brothels, but he had a kindly side and was going to finance them to make nets for the fishermen.
So, the Cistercians set off for their home as swiftly as they can to get there on the day of the Epiphany, having stopped en route to pray for King Richard whose birthday it was.
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