Features

H.W. Cave: A brief essay on his life, works and company

Published

3 years ago

2023/10/8

By Avishka Mario Senewiratne

Ever since the British took over the coastal region of Ceylon and subsequently the realms of Kandy, many English travellers such as Percival, Cordiner, Davy, Marshall, Tennent, Baker, and Skinner visited our country. The list of travellers who wrote of our own ‘picturesque Ceylon’ is much longer. Long before that, the well known Robert Knox was a glorious captive of Râjasinghe II. His book on Ceylon, in any continent is a classic.

Undoubtedly, this former colony of the monarch of England, had touched the hearts of many who had visited and a more significant number of those who have not. Yet no one did what H.W. Cave would do for Ceylon. He painted a bird’s eye and traveller’s eye of this ancient country so as not just to attract the foreign reader but also to honour the sons and daughters of the soil.

His photographs coupled with his lucid style of writing have captivated readers of yesterday, today and will, by all means; tomorrow! Not many may know of this lover of Ceylon or his workings in the commercial sphere. However, the name “Cave & Co.” have stood the test of time. Thus, here I am attempting to record his epitaph and not forget to illuminate those who keep us writers moving forward: the readers.

H.W. Cave: A Biographical Note

Henry William Cave was born on February 23, 1854, to William Cave and Louisa Wilson of Northamptonshire, England. Nothing much is known of his early days apart from the fact that he attended Magdalen College School and subsequently Queen’s College, Oxford. However, prior to the completion of his degree, Cave dropped out of Oxford at age 18.

With nothing else to do, he accepted the role of being the private secretary of Bishop Reginald Copleston, the newly appointed Anglican Bishop of Colombo. Thus, Copleston and Cave travelled to a country they both knew little of in 1872. Coming to Ceylon, changed the life and the attitude of Cave for the better. He, who was a shy, introverted young man in England, experienced much prosperity in Ceylon.

The Anglican Diocese of Colombo, though large in area, had a somewhat low population. Copleston realised that his young secretary had little work to do and encouraged him to edit the Ceylon Diocesan Gazette, the oldest Anglican paper in the country. It was here where Cave first got exposed to typography and printing.

By 1876 Cave was well settled in Ceylon. That year, with the blessing and encouragement of his Bishop, he started a simple bookstore which sold Bibles and religious books. Located in Upper Chatham Street, Colombo Fort, this was the birth of H.W. Cave and Company.

Interestingly, many young Europeans who came to Ceylon during British rule either went on to be planters, administrators of the government or those who had the means, to start their own businesses. Henry Cave on the other hand wanted to do something with books. This involved travel and research, taking photographs, writing books and then selling them.

Cave had considerable acumen about what he was doing. By 1884 he made enough money to expand his shop stocking not only books but also stationery,, musical instruments and sporting goods such as billiard tables. He also sold rickshaws and bicycles and was a printer and publisher. After moving to a two-storey building in Queen Street, Fort, he had enough business to employ over 350 people.

This building which had a well-proportioned classical façade and a 400-foot road frontage was popularly called ‘Amen’s Corner’. While on furlough in the UK, he met Laura Emma Long and married her in 1880 in Richmond, Surrey. One of Cave’s daughters was named ‘Kalani’. However, the marriage was short-lived with the untimely death of Laura in 1886. Cave, who was widowed at 32 was left heartbroken.

He left his business under the care of his brothers and nephew and returned to England. remaining the senior partner. He re-entered Oxford to complete the degree he dropped pursuing some 14 years previously, Cave ultimately completed his first degree and also took a Master’s in Arts. He made a number of visits to Ceylon until his death in 1913.

H.W. Cave: His works

Despite leaving Ceylon in 1886, Cave had by then acquired immense knowledge of the island, its people and cities. He had a series of notes on various places he visited and though an amateur photographer, a collection of landscape photographs of various areas in Ceylon. With time he became a highly sought-after photographer reputed for the quality and precision of his work.

Unlike others who wrote of this country, who had only illustrated their work with sketches as plates, Cave thought out of the box. He illustrated his text with his own photographs publishing a series of deluxe travelogues on Ceylon. This series was called Picturesque Ceylon. Following are the books of that series:

· Cave, H.W., (1894), Picturesque Ceylon: Colombo and the Kelani Valley, Volume 1, London: Samson Low, Marston & Co. with 36 illustrations.

· Cave, H.W., (1895), Picturesque Ceylon: Kandy and Peradeniya, Volume 2, London: Samson Low, Marston & Co. with 33 illustrations.

· Cave, H.W., (1897), Picturesque Ceylon: Nuwaraeliya and Adam’s Peak, Volume 3, London: Samson Low, Marston & Co. with 30 illustrations.

In his preface to his first book, Cave states that this is not a ‘literary effort’ but ‘some information about the scenes depicted’. He goes on to say, “My purpose is to enable the friends of European residents in Ceylon, and others who are interested in the Island, to obtain a better idea of its charming features than is possible from a mere verbal description.” The book was an instant hit, both in Europe and Ceylon. His images of Colombo and the Kelani Valley together with his highly readable text was enjoyed by his readers.

His lucid style of writing gripped the reader’s attention tempting many to read from cover to cover at a single sitting. Cave begins his descriptions with a simple view of the palm-fringed shores of Colombo from the deck of a travelling ship. He then describes the docks and the areas surrounding the Fort and Pettah, and subsequently the inner parts of Colombo.

What captivates the reader is that he complements his text by describing a certain event or area, thereby creating a word picture and then providing actual photographs shot by him to give a thorough overview. This is what made his three volumes of Picturesque Ceylon so appealing to many. Further, the fine binding of these books made them very attractive. This is how the Ceylon Independent reviewed the first book by Cave:

“It is the finest and the most handsomely got up a book on the subject of Ceylon that has yet been published; the most praiseworthy attempt to paint the lily that we have seen.”

Cave went on to write yet another book in 1897 on Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa titled Ruined Cities of Ceylon. This too became an instant hit and out of all his publications, this is the most hard-to-find book. It went into immediate reprints due to the growing demand. In 1900, Cave published his most endearing work highlighting the impetus of the booming tea industry of Ceylon. This book titled Golden Tips: Description of Ceylon and its Great Tea Industry has over 200 illustrations and runs across 467 pages.

One conspicuous feature of this book is its extremely hard yet eye-catching gold cloth binding with gold leaf edges. Though the first print ran for 3,000 copies within a year another reprint had to be done. By 1907, there were four editions of this book and numerous other reprints have followed to date. Reviewing the Golden Tips, the London Atheneum commented:

“Mr. Cave seems to hold a brief for the whole island of Ceylon, with its varied attractions… The charm of Sinhalese life and nature is depicted with glowing colours and interesting details… The simple, peaceful village life, and the more stirring existence of the townspeople, with their varied avocations, are equally well described.”

H.W. Cave certainly knew his marketing. Upon the completion of his work, he sought reviews on each of his publications and used them widely in his advertising. This attracted attention with both daily newspapers and scholarly journals praising his efforts and the high quality and readability of his illustrated works. In 1908, Cave published the Book of Ceylon. The late Dr. Christopher Uragoda considers this work as his magnum opus.

The Book of Ceylon ran over 650 pages and was lavishly illustrated like Cave’s previous works. It also has a signature colour plate of Lankathilaka temple. His admiration of the construction of a splendid railway line in the country, led to his compiling a book on the railway together with an account of the country’s varied attractions for visitor and tourists. The binding of this book is a bright red-clothed fabric with gold engravings. As the railway then was the most commonly used mode of transport for both people and goods, this publication with its detailed maps attracted many readers and was highly appreciated.

In 1910, Cave published his final book The Ceylon Government Railway which was mainly extracted from The Book of Ceylon. Though this is the least appreciated work of Cave, its first edition ran into 6,000 copies. Today all of Cave’s books are high in demand and its first editions are highly sought after by book collectors. Ismeth Raheem and Percy Colin-Thome in their book Images of British Ceylon commented on Cave as follows: “He (H.W. Cave) attempted to present a quintessential vision of Ceylon.”

Messrs. H.W. Cave and Company

Henry Cave first opened his bookstore as more of a side-business on the encouragement of his dear friend, Bishop Copleston in 1876. However, he realised that his expertise in this was far greater than he anticipated. The trade he was dealing with was with a niche market and he fathomed that he had no competitors. This strategy enabled him to grow rapidly within a short period of time. Soon his two brothers A.E. and S. Cave would join him along with his nephew Walter Cave.

They were the partners of what would be one of the biggest firms in Colombo for several decades. Caves had a wide array of books ranging from the genres of educational, comedy, fiction, non-fiction, travelogues, philosophy, romance, history etc. The books ranged from affordable rates to high-quality books with well-leathered covers and gilt-edged leaves. This is what Allister Macmillan commented on the bookstore:

“Civilisation has developed nothing of greater importance and influence than the multiplicity of its literature, and the stock of books and other reading matter kept at Messrs. H.W. Cave and Co. is an interesting and accurate index to public tastes and requirements in that condition” Apart from books, Caves were dealers of high-quality stationery and office equipment imported from Britain.

These goods such as filing cabinets, cash registers, adding machines, typewriters etc. were high in demand in Colombo as it was well known to achieve maximum results and efficiency over minimum labour. When it came to sporting goods such as athletics and gymnastic equipment, fishing tackle and billiard tables, Caves was second to none.

Cave and Co. had a wide range of silverware, watches, pictures, artists’ material, tobacco, as well as sundry items. The musical fraternity of this country cannot forget the exquisite kind of musical instruments imported from England. No firm in this country at that time had acquired such prominence for the fine pianos and organs. These devices were famous for being labelled ‘Suited to the climate of Ceylon’.

However, what Cave & Co. were outspokenly best at their printing works. Located in Slave Island the press used to run across 25,000 sq. ft. By 1926, the press had no fewer than 41 printing machines of various sizes. Cave’s printing was famous for its fine binding and revolutionary typesetting, which even in this digital age is hard to match. Apart from printing books for private clients and government contracts across all languages in Ceylon, the printing press was well known for printing picturesque colour postcards and photographs and millions of tea labels.

No one would have expected that a simple boy, who was the secretary of the ‘boy Bishop’ would be such a successful entrepreneur, hard to match. Set up in 1881,Cave’st was the most modern press in the subcontinent. It was well known for using the state-of-the-art photo-chemical reproduction facility. This was used for the first time in commercial purpose by Cave & Co. H.W. Cave employed the trained artist Barlow Moore to head the initial staff of 40 as the Chief Printing Manager.

While being the senior partner H.W. Cave died in 1913 and his brothers and nephew ran the firm well into 1920s. In 1926, it is known that the partners of the company were Messers. Bartlett, Brown, Dawkins and Wratten. In the 1950s this company which had by then had moved to the best area of the Gaffoor building, was acquired by the sons of F.J. Lucas Fernando Jr. After the 1960s, Cave & Co. declined and eventually closed its operations. This is history and hopefully a visionary as astute as H.W. Cave would create a similar enterprise in Sri Lanka.

“Flattery is hushed when Ceylon is the theme,

As mem’ry on mem’ries throng, her charms to tell!

Are there not witcheries that through beauty beam

Unspeakable? Yet, weaving such a spell

That limner, language, never can portray,

Though haunted by their magic power always.”

–Mrs. William Dent

References

Goonetilleke, H.A.I., (1970-77), Bibliography of Ceylon, Vols. 5,

Kularatne, Tilak, (2006), History of Printing and Publishing in Ceylon: 1736-1912, Dehiwala

Macmillan, Allister (ed), (1928), Seaports of India and Ceylon, W.H &L. Collingridge, London

Raheem, I and Colin-Thome, P, (2000), Images of British Ceylon: 19^th Century Photography of Sri Lanka, Times Edition

Richard Boyle, (2001), ‘Through a Carriage Window with Cave’, Sunday Times

Uragoda, C.G., (2011), Authors of Books on Sri Lanka, 1796-1948, Volume 1,

West, John, (2014), Views of Ceylon, The Ceylon Study Circle

Wright, Arnold (ed), (1907), Twentieth Century Impressions of Ceylon, London

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Features

Dilemmas of ‘hurting economies’ – the case of Sri Lanka

Published

9 hours ago

2026/05/7

Sahan Weerasooriya

Dr. Ganeshan Wignaraja (right) and Ambassador (Retd) Ravinatha Aryasinha.

Maldives President Dr. Mohamed Muizzu was in Sri Lanka recently on what was apparently a goodwill visit and this event, no doubt, bodes very well for Maldives-Sri Lanka relations. Besides, the visit would go some distance in strengthening Sri Lanka’s claims to Non-Alignment.

However, the commentator on regional politics could be accused of simplistic thinking if he/she glosses over or ignores the regional politics nuances or undertones of the Maldivian President’s visit. In Sri Lanka we currently have a government which is eager to solidify its bridges, so to speak, with China and which, given the chance, would be courting increasingly close relations with Russia. In other words, the NPP government is likely to see itself as a ‘natural ally’ of the East and would prefer to distance itself to the extent possible from the West, if that is a realistic proposition.

Given the foregoing backdrop, it would be in some of the NPP regime’s best interests to be on cordial terms with the Maldives which is a close ally of China in the South Asian region. However, the NPP government, given the utter financial helplessness of Sri Lanka, cannot afford to distance itself politically and diplomatically from India and the West. Sheer economic necessity compels Sri Lanka to adopt this foreign policy stance. In other words, the latter has no choice but to be ‘Non-Aligned.’

This columnist was led to the above observations on listening to a lucid and comprehensive presentation titled, ‘A Global Economy in the Shadow of the Iran War and implications for Sri Lanka’s debt recovery’, by Dr. Ganeshan Wignaraja, Visiting Senior Fellow, ODI Global London, at the Regional Centre for Strategic Studies (RCSS), Colombo on May 4th. The forum, RCSS Strategic Dialogue – 4, was moderated and presided over by RCSS Executive Director Ambassador (retd) Ravinatha Aryasinha.

The forum brought together a wide cross section of society, including diplomatic personnel, academicians, public and private sector personalities and the media. After the presentation a very lively and informative Q&A followed.

Ambassador Aryasinha at the outset set an appropriate backdrop to the presentation and discussion by stressing ‘the increasing interconnectedness of geopolitical and economic developments, noting how disruptions in the Middle East could have significant ramifications for global markets, trade flows, energy prices and broader economic stability, including Sri Lanka.’

Indeed, there are occurring currently very disruptive economic and material consequences for the world from ‘the Iran War’, and with US-Iran hostilities spiraling in West Asia it may not be wrong to surmise that the worst could be yet to come, unless a peace process materializes in earnest.

Meanwhile, ‘hurting countries’ such as Sri Lanka would need to summon their best economic management capabilities to remain materially and economically afloat. ‘Economic transformation’ is what is urgently needed and not mere management and some of the insights thrown up by Dr. Ganeshan Wignaraja should have the local polity thinking.

There was the following observation, for instance: ‘Sri Lanka has achieved remarkable cyclical stabilization but faces critical challenges in transitioning to transformative growth, with 2027-2028 debt repayments looming and only $5.4 billion usable reserves.’

Needless to say, the path ahead to ‘transformative growth’ for Sri Lanka is strewn with multiple challenges and meeting them effectively is of the first importance. Sri Lanka must soldier on towards even a semblance of development in the short and medium terms and such initiatives cannot be separated from its foreign policy choices since the country’s economic partners and their growth prowess have a close bearing on the country’s material fortunes.

As mentioned, Sri Lanka will be compelled to be ‘a friend of all countries and an enemy of none’ going forward but it cannot afford to be seen as cultivating China as a close growth partner at the expense of India and other major economies of the region.

This is primarily because while India is remaining a major economic power, the current West Asian crisis notwithstanding, China’s economy is being seen as ‘slowing’. Dr. Wignaraja singled out the following in the main as the factors causing this slow-down: a bursting property bubble, increasing state regulation, and weakening investor confidence. Besides, the speaker sees production cycles moving away from China and India replacing China and Hong Kong as ‘manufacturing hubs’.

Accordingly, the NPP regime in Sri Lanka would need to craft its regional policy in particular with the utmost far-sightedness. It will need to have close economic links with all the growth centres that matter.

On the question of authentic economic transformation, the following observations of Dr. Wignaraja on Sri Lanka’s economy are of the first importance as well: ‘Foreign reserves are now at $ 5.4 billion, the cost of living is high, an estimated 20 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line of $ 3.65 per day, the recent cyber security breach at the Treasury would affect some 10 payments.’ These factors were termed ‘critical vulnerabilities’.

It is difficult to conceive of an economic transformation worthy of the phrase minus a steady economic empowerment of the populace. The above data point to the considerable magnitude of the local poverty problem. Right now, the disruptive effects of the West Asian crisis render swift poverty alleviation a most difficult proposition.

One possible way out of the present economic debacle is the forging of a national consensus by the present government on all outstanding problems that have been bedeviling the country’s advancement. That is, there needs to be a meeting of minds across current political divides. Considering the present inflammatory political polarities in Sri Lanka this would prove an insurmountable challenge.

Unfortunately, conscience-filled and civic minded sections in Sri Lanka have chosen to be laid back rather than seize the initiative, come centre stage and impress on politicians the need for enlightened governance and progressive change. There needs to be a historic coming together of the right thinking to ensure that the best interests of the people and of the people only are served by governments. In the absence of such a process, might would be projected as right and brute force would come to increasingly rule politics and society.

Features

Australia funds project to restore climate-resilient vegetable livelihoods in cyclone-affected highlands

Published

9 hours ago

2026/05/7

Sahan Weerasooriya

(L-R) D. P. Wickramasinghe, Secretary of Agriculture; Matthew Duckworth, Australian High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, K. D. Lal Kantha, Minister of Agriculture, Livestock, Lands and Irrigation, and Vimlendra Sharan, FAO Representative for Sri Lanka and the Maldives at the signing ceremony.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Lands and Irrigation, the Government of Australia, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have launched of a AUD 2 million (USD 1.4 million) recovery initiative to restore and transform vegetable production systems in the cyclone-affected districts of Nuwara Eliya and Badulla.

The FAO said yesterday (5) that the agreement was formalized through the signing of the grant agreement by Matthew Duckworth, Australian High Commissioner to Sri Lanka, and Vimlendra Sharan, FAO Representative for Sri Lanka and the Maldives, alongside the signing of the project document by D. P. Wickramasinghe, Secretary of Agriculture.

Cyclone Ditwah, which struck Sri Lanka in November 2025, caused widespread devastation across the country, severely disrupting agricultural production systems and livelihoods. The highland districts of Nuwara Eliya and Badulla, key suppliers of vegetables such as beans, carrots, leeks, cabbage, tomato and potato, were among the hardest hit, with thousands of smallholder farmers losing crops, seed stocks, and productive assets.

This 12-month initiative aims torestore and strengthen climate-resilient vegetable production systems, with a strong focus on empowering women farmers and supporting persons with disabilities. The project will directly benefit more than 2,400 smallholder farmers, through improved seed and seedling production systems, small machinery, training, and market linkages while indirectly supporting thousands more.

“This initiative is an important step not only in restoring what was lost, but in building a more resilient and self-reliant agricultural sector,” said Minister Lal Kantha. “By strengthening local seed systems and supporting smallholder farmers, particularly women and vulnerable groups, we are investing in the long-term sustainability of Sri Lanka’s food systems.”

“Australia stands alongside Sri Lanka in its ongoing recovery from Cyclone Ditwah,” said High Commissioner Duckworth. “Australia is a steadfast partner in the agriculture sector with its importance for food security, rural development and climate resilience. By focusing on climate smart practices, farmer-led solutions and inclusive economic opportunities, this project will deliver meaningful and lasting benefits to affected communities.

The project will prioritize the restoration of farmer-led seed systems for beans and potatoes, support the re-establishment of both open-field and protected cultivation systems and women led seedling supply nurseries while empowering all farmers with Climate-Smart Good Agricultural Practices (CSGAP) with small scale machinery and input support.

A key feature of the initiative is the establishment of six accessible and inclusive nurseries in Nuwara Eliya and Badulla. These nurseries will serve as sustainable agri-based enterprises, producing high-quality vegetable seedlings while creating new income opportunities and strengthening local input supply chains.

By combining recovery support with long-term resilience measures, the project will help stabilize vegetable production, improve household food security and nutrition, and reduce reliance on imported seeds.

Features

War on Iran may hasten unraveling of New World Order

Published

9 hours ago

2026/05/7

Sahan Weerasooriya

It took several decades for the US to realise it was losing the war in Vietnam. It took a bit shorter time in Afghanistan. And what is happening in the countries the US and Israel intervened and broke up? The US has been asked to leave Iraq. Syria is talking to Russia about establishing military bases, President al-Sharaa met with Vladimir Putin in Moscow to discuss the project, which is vital for Russian power projection in the Middle East. Libya has been divided into two competing administrative units with the Eastern section actively engaged with Russia in defence matters. The Sudanese government has finalised a 25-year deal to allow a Russian naval facility in the Red Sea in exchange for weapons, including anti-aircraft systems. On the Eastern side of the Red Sea, Yemen remains divided, with the main power center, the Houthis maintaining a staunchly anti-US, anti-Israel stance, while the internationally recognised government remains in exile.

When the Iranian Foreign Minister recently undertook a tour of Pakistan, Oman and Russia, the US wanted to meet him and got ready to send its negotiators Vice President J. D. Vance and his team to Pakistan, but Iranian FM snubbed them and left Pakistan, saying Iran did not want to talk to the US while a blockade of their ports were in place. The Iranian FM met President Putin, who congratulated Iran for courageously defending their country and then phoned US President Trump and told him further attacks on Iran would not be acceptable. During this conversation on April 27, 2026, Putin reportedly warned Trump that further U.S. or Israeli attacks on Iran would have dangerous consequences, according to Al Jazeera). Such a sequence of events would not have been possible in the unipolar world we had in the past.

Furthermore, the damage that Iran has inflicted on the US and Israel in this war would have been unimaginable in the late 20th Century and early 21st Century. Sixteen US military bases spread across Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan and Oman have been either destroyed or severely damaged. Advanced surveillance aircraft and radar systems worth more than $ 2.8 bn were destroyed. This had a far-reaching effect on the war as the US could not use these bases in the war against Iran and also in the defence of its allies in the Gulf.

The attacks on Israel have been equally damaging. In Central Israel and Tel Aviv area multiple attacks targeted military and intelligence assets, resulting in massive damage. Iranian missiles hit the Haifa oil refinery, causing a shutdown, and hit residential buildings, leading to injuries and structural damage. Residential and commercial areas were damaged in Bat Yam and Petah Tikva with significant casualties and destruction. Attacks in Dimona and Arad targeted the Negev Nuclear Research Center, with casualties reported in both towns. The Soroka Medical Center in Beersheba was hit in a strike. The strategic port and naval base in Eilat were targeted. In Rishon LeZion suburban residential areas suffered extensive damage.

Usually, Israel makes short work of its many enemies in the region, for example it took just six days to defeat the combined military of Egypt, Jordan and Syria in 1967 and grab their land as well. Hamas, Fatah and Palestinians would suffer ignominious defeats if they dare challenge Israel. However, the recent war against Hamas, following a daring wide scale invasion into Israel by Hamas in October 2023, went on for more than two years with no conclusive victory for Israel.

These significant massive military setbacks suffered by the combined forces of the US and Israel have been made possible by the unprecedented advancement in military technology achieved mainly by China and to a degree by Russia as well. Iran has been able to develop ballistic missile systems that could penetrate the “iron dome” that Israel boasted, with technological assistance from China and North Korea. Iran’s drones are very cheap yet very effective, requiring interceptors worth millions of dollars to counter them, thus making it much more costly for the US to fight this war than it is for Iran.

Further, Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthies in Yemen and Hamas in Palestine are well equipped with advanced missiles and drones. Hezbollah has been able to destroy about hundred Israel tanks and stop their advance. According to Larry Johnson, former CIA intelligence analyst, Israel soldiers are much war weary and mentally affected and are being withdrawn. Netanyahu’s 40 year dream of a “Greater Israel” is telling on the poor soldiers.

If a person like Barack Obama had been the US President instead of the hyper egoistic, blustering, intellectually barren Trump, things may have been different. An attempt would have been made to reconcile with the fact that the world is changing, instead of trying to stop it and make “America Great Again”. Perhaps, it could be said that Trump is facilitating the emergence of the new world order by enabling the US citizens to see the reality, the futility of war and the fact that Israel is a liability because the US is fighting its war. Further, the war has enabled Iran to assert its place in the region and negotiate from a position of strength.

Perhaps, Israeli people may realise that the Palestine problem cannot be solved by militarily occupying their land, and that in a changing world a “Greater Israel” is a “pie in the sky”. They may have to agree to a two-state solution. US support may not always be forthcoming, certainly not at the level that Trump could extend, as this war is very unpopular and expensive. The other very significant fact is that Israeli settlers in the occupied lands feel insecure and one in three wants to leave and the numbers may grow when Palestinians and their sympathisers grow in strength in the new world order.

Moreover, the war on Iran has afforded China the opportunity to demonstrate with authority the fact that it stands for universal peace and does not tolerate illegal wars. Its message to the US conveyed its world view and its desire for peace in no uncertain terms. Trump cannot afford to disregard the Chinese position on the war on the eve of his visit to that country which may decide on future trade between the two countries as the US depends on China for several essential materials like rare earth minerals. Furthermore, China has shown that peace could be achieved by developing the economies of the underdeveloped countries irrespective of their alliances. It helps Iran as well as Saudi Arabia and try to build bridges between these foes. It welcomes Trump in the coming weeks and hopes to strengthen ties between the two countries despite the weaknesses of the latter.

Another important factor is the gradual decline of the critical value of the petro-dollar. Following the end of the gold standard in 1971, the US struck deals with Saudi Arabia and other OPEC nations (around 1974) to price oil exclusively in USD in exchange for military protection and arms sales. Dollars earned by selling oil came to be known as petro-dollar. Oil producers, holding large dollar surpluses, reinvest these funds in the US Treasury securities, real estate, and financial assets ensuring the recycling of petro-dollars. The system ensures a consistent global demand for US dollars, which helps fund the US budget deficit and maintains the currency’s dominance.

However, the petro-dollar system is on the decline and there are two main reasons for this, firstly the gradual rise of the new world order with organisations like BRICS, making a concerted effort to extricate from the dollar dominance by developing alternate currencies and methods to bypass the dollar. Secondly, the need felt by most countries to develop alternative energy sources to replace enormously harmful fossil fuel would eventually result in a decline in the demand for it and consequently the effectiveness of the petro-dollar. China is leading the world in both these endeavours; depolarisation process and renewable energy production. The war on Iran seems to have hastened the process of depolarisation as Iran insists that it will sell its oil for yuan only.

These revolutionary changes in the aftermath of the Iran war have their undeniable implications for the Global South, where more than 60% of the poor live.

by N. A. de S. Amaratunga