Features
Evolution from AM radio to Digital TV broadcasting

Parliamentary Acts on Broadcasting and Telecommunications
by DR JANAKA RATNASIRI
The Cabinet of Ministers (COM) has recently decided to update the Parliamentary Acts on Broadcasting, Rupavahini and Telecommunications and introduce a Bill on establishing a Broadcasting Regulatory Commission. Since, all these are interlinked, it is necessary to take a holistic view of them, taking into consideration new developments such as digital broadcasting. Before that, it would be pertinent to consider the historical development of these services.
USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FOR COMMUNICATION
The Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum comprising EM waves, extends from high energetic gamma rays, X-Rays and ultra-violet rays on one extreme to low energetic visible, infra-red, microwaves and radio waves on the other extreme. All these are generated naturally by the sun, but almost all of the high energetic radiations get absorbed in the upper atmosphere and only the low energetic radiations are received at ground level. They are also generated by man for various applications like X-Rays, microwaves and radio waves. Out of these, microwaves and radio waves are used for telecommunication purposes, commonly referred to as wireless communication.
EM waves comprise oscillating electric and magnetic fields generated when electrons oscillate either in a plasma or in a conductor. These two fields have their directions perpendicular to each other. They cause radiation of energy in the form of a wave travelling in a direction perpendicular to directions of both electric and magnetic fields. They are characterized by the fact their frequency in Hertz (Hz) and wavelength in metres (m) are inversely proportional to each other with their product equal to the speed of light in vacuum which is 299.8 million m/s. It was James Maxwell who presented the theory of EM waves around 1865 while Gustav Hertz demonstrated their existence in 1887 which earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1925.
Hertz’s discovery led to Guglielmo Marconi demonstrating in 1901 that high frequency (HF) waves could be used to send signals across the Atlantic. This caused the birth of the telecommunication industry, for which he received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909. Though HF radio waves were used for long distance communication, the mechanism of their propagation over several thousands of kilo-metres was not understood at that time. Theories of propagation available at that time considered only ground wave propagation which has limited range and line-of-sight propagation which also has limited range along the Earth’s surface. Hence, coverage across the Atlantic was a puzzle at that time.
It was left to Edward Appleton to explain this phenomenon when he discovered in 1927 the existence of the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles lying about 100 km above the ground, which bounces off these radio waves back to the Earth when they are incident on it. Appleton received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1947 for this discovery. It was soon found that radio waves could be used not only for telecommunication purposes, but also for providing voice broadcasting services, known as radio, both within and across countries. HF radio waves remained the only means of long-distance telecommunication as well as broadcasting until the mid-sixties when satellite-based communication took over which came into being, thanks to the vision of Sir Arthur C. Clarke announced in 1945 in the Wireless World Magazine.
DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO BROADCASTING SERVICES
Public broadcasting in Sri Lanka commenced in 1925 as Radio Colombo with limited coverage around the city using only MF transmissions. It expanded to a wider coverage about 10 years later and continued till 1949 when its identity was changed to Radio Ceylon. The services were also extended to provide short wave transmissions to provide island-wide coverage though the service was of poor quality due to inherent ionospheric disturbances. Radio Ceylon had one advertisement-free service in each language for many years and added separate commercial services later. Though Radio Ceylon functioned for many years as a semi-government organization under different Ministries from time to time, it lacked a proper legal framework.
To remedy this situation, the Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Act No. 37 of 1966 was passed in Parliament and the CBC was established in 1967 which brought Radio Ceylon to function under it. The Act was amended thrice, to make SLBC both a regulator and a service provider. One amendment was to change its name to Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). Another was for the issue of licenses by the Minister to other persons for the establishment of private broadcasting stations. The amended Act also required an owner of a radio receiver to obtain a licence annually through the Post Office. The Act also requires any person selling, assembling, repairing or renting radio equipment to obtain an annual licence from SLBC to perform that function. Thus, the SLBC performed a dual role of being a service provider and a regulator.
The evolution of radio technology from vacuum tube-based home radio receivers available up to sixties to transistor and integrated circuit based portable radio receivers currently available in the market made it impossible to implement the licensing provision. Hence, this requirement was abolished subsequently, but the provision still remains in the Act. Today, every motor car has a built-in radio receiver and every smart mobile telephone has a built-in radio receiver. Hence, there is a need to amend the SLBC Act to remove this outdated provision.
From the inception, radio broadcasting in Sri Lanka was confined to transmission of amplitude modulated (AM) signals which had limited band-width causing high frequencies in the audio signal getting clipped. This affected the quality of musical programmes severely. These transmissions were in the medium frequency (MF) (or medium waves) for short range coverage and high frequencies (HF) (or short waves) for covering the entire island. The short waves reach the listener after getting reflected from the ionosphere which is a dynamical entity and hence the signals received were not steady and of poor quality. In the sixties, SLBC built several MF transmitters in outstations enabling outstation listeners to have the benefit of receiving quality programmes free of ionospheric disturbances.
In the seventies, the SLBC commenced limited transmissions of signals with frequency modulation (FM) on the very high frequency (VHF) band. These transmissions have higher bandwidth and hence the audio programmes received are of high quality, and also require much less power to transmit. They are also not affected by atmospheric or ionospheric disturbances. The only problem is that their coverage is limited to line-of-sight range. Later the service was extended to provide an island-wide coverage through the installation of several transmitters, most of which are installed on hill-tops to extend the coverage.
Up to the end of the 1980s, the SLBC had the monopoly of operating radio services, but in the nineties and twenties, several private parties, exceeding 20, were issued licences to operate radio services in the FM band. Each service was given two frequencies enabling them to cover the entire island. Most of them, except a few who offered religious programmes, came up with only low quality musical programmes providing requests on payment devoting a major share of air time on advertisements which brought the revenue for their survival. The lack of a suitable mechanism to monitor the quality and content of the programmes aired is a serious shortcoming in the present system.
DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION BROADCASTING SERVICES
Television (TV) service was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1979 when a private party launched a service voluntarily. Later, it was taken over by the Government. At that time, there was no policy or regulations on establishing TV services in the country. The Sri Lanka Rupavahini Corporation (SLRC) Act, No. 06 of 1982 was passed under which the SLRC was established with functions of the Corporation to carry on a television broadcasting service within Sri Lanka and to promote and develop that service and maintain high standards in programming in the public interest. The Rupavahini TV service was launched by SLRC using a package gifted by Japan, with the main antenna erected on Mt. Pidurutalagala.
The Act is required to register persons engaged in the production of television programmes for broadcasting; to register persons who carry on the business of importing, selling, manufacturing or assembling television receiving sets; to exercise supervision and control over television programmes broadcast by the Corporation; and to exercise supervision and control over foreign and other television crews, producing television programmes for export, among others.
Thus, the SLRC also has a dual role similar to that of SLBC, of being a service provider and a regulator. However, it lacked the powers to implement the provisions to exercise supervision and control on other TV services as described in the last two items given in the previous section. The SLRC Act has provision to issue licences to qualified parties to establish and operate TV stations. Accordingly, 54 private television licenses have been issued licences so far, whereas only 28 telecasting licensees are in operation at present (Cabinet Decision of 04.03.2020).
The Cabinet of Ministers (COM) at its meeting held on 04.01.2021 has decided to amend the SLRC Act to provide for the expansion of its Board of Directors to empower it to implement decisions taken with a view to face the competitive scenario prevailing in the field. No further amendments have been identified even though the Act is totally out of date considering the developments in the field during the last 19 years. There is a need to bring SLRC under the proposed Broadcasting Regulatory Commission to remove the regulatory functions from it and also to remove the provision to possess a licence by a user.
ESTABLISHING A TELECOMMUNICATION REGULATORY COMMISSION
In early days, the telecommunication services were provided by the Posts and Telecommunication Department, which was later bifurcated into two departments. The government passed the Sri Lanka Telecommunication (SLT) Act No. 25 in 1991 which provided for the establishment of the Sri Lanka Telecommunication Authority (SLTA) which took over the functions of the Telecommunication Department. Among the objectives of the SLTA are to ensure the conservation and proper utilization of the radio frequency spectrum by operators and other organizations and individuals who need to use radio frequencies and to make and enforce compliance with rules to minimize electro-magnetic disturbances produced by electrical apparatus and all unauthorized radio frequency emissions, among others.
The SLT Act was amended by Act No. 27 of 1996 whereby the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka (TRCSL) was established in place of SLTA. The amended Act made provisions for receiving complaints from the public and holding public hearings on them and retained all the functions assigned to the SLTA. Its regulatory functions were limited to telecommunication service providers and did not cover the broadcasting of radio or TV services, other than assigning frequencies for them. This is unlike in India where the Telecommunication Authority covered regulation of Broadcasting of Radio and TV services both in terms of technical aspects and quality of programmes.
PROPOSAL FOR ESTABLISHING A BROADCASTING REGULATORY COMMISSION
The COM at its meeting held on 04.03.2020 having considered the necessity of having a separate institution to regulate the activities of the broadcasting and telecasting media based on a Committee recommendation approved a draft for setting up a ”Broadcasting Regulatory Commission” (BRC), and decided to explore the possibility of amending the SLTRC Act, to enable it to perform the task of the process of issuing Broadcasting and Telecasting Licenses, which were hitherto issued by the SLBC and SLRC, respectively. The objective is to remove the regulatory functions from these two organizations and transfer them to the new Commission.
As early as 1997, a Broadcasting Authority Bill was presented to the Parliament for the same purpose but it was held unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court because it did not give adequate independence to the Authority. Thereafter, a Select Committee of Parliament with representation of all parties was appointed to consider the problem and met on multiple occasions but the matter was left in abeyance. Now, it has resurfaced under a new heading – Broadcasting Regulatory Commission. However, its contents are not available in the public domain, not even in the Govt Printer’s website.
Unlike in early days when broadcasted programmes whether radio or TV were available only as free-to-air services, today with advances in technology, particularly TV programmes, are brought to residences using either physical cables or UHF links or satellite links or through the internet. Since free-to-air services are not available island-wide with acceptable quality, people opt for these services upon payment of a monthly fee. But some satellite links do not provide a satisfactory service when it rains, though the service provider claims it provides tomorrow’s technology today.
There is also an urgent need to exercise some control on the utilizing of TV medium for advertising purposes. While there is a positive aspect whereby a viewer receives information on a new product or service, the repetitive display of the same commercial of well-known consumer products is nothing but an annoyance. The writer believes that during prime time, between almost 50% of air time is devoted for commercials and promotional clips. This is in contrast to India where only 10 min of commercials are allowed for every 60 min of air-time. Hence, there is a need to have a regulatory body to ensure that satisfactory services are provided to subscribers, both in terms of the quality of signal received and the quality of programmes aired.
A notable characteristic of Sri Lanka’s TV service providers is that they seem to be very prudish when it comes to airing cinematographic material intended for adult audience, but of high quality which have received accolades at international events. The operator loses no time in blanking even a momentary kissing scene in them. The proposed BRC could lay some guidelines on presenting quality adult programmes which have already been cleared by the National Censor Board enabling the adult audience to enjoy them without subjecting them to additional censorship by TV operators. Perhaps, such programmes could be limited for airing during late hours of the day when children have gone to bed.
TRANSITION FROM ANALOG TV TO DIGITAL TV SYSTEMS
There is a global trend to switch from analogue to digital system for television broadcasting as it offers many advantages among which are better spectrum utilization, higher picture and sound quality, accessibility via mobile devices and new business opportunities. Under the sponsorship of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a Roadmap for Transition from Analogue to Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting (DTTB) in Sri Lanka was jointly developed in 2012 by a team of ITU experts from Korea and the National Roadmap Team (NRT) chaired by TRCSL.
Digital TV transmission, though will provide a high-quality service, will result in added expenditure both for the service provider and the viewer. In order to reduce the financial burden for the service provider, NRT proposed to establish a set of 8 common digital transmitters at sites already being used for TV transmission, for sharing by all service providers. They are expected to provide initially simultaneous transmissions both on analog and digital systems, so that a viewer will be able to receive programmes uninterruptedly when switching from analog to digital system.
As a follow up to the above proposal, the GoSL assigned a “Feasibility Study on Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Network Project” in 2014, to Japan International Cooperation Agency. (). This study recommended setting up of 16 digital transmitters to be managed by a separate body, with the principal tower at Lotus Tower in Colombo. Individual TV services are expected to send their high definition programmes to Lotus Tower by microwave or other links who will in turn broadcast them from the common set of transmitters. By this means, all the TV channels will be received at the same signal strength anywhere in the country.
It was proposed to establish a body to be known as “Digital Broadcast Network Operator” (DBNO) to organize, manage and administer the new system. DBNO is expected to operate and maintain the entire system with the revenue from the operation fees collected from broadcasting stations. The transition to DTTB will result in incurring heavy expenditure by both DBNO and individual service providers, including installing new antenna systems, purchasing digital studio equipment such as cameras, animators, programme mixers etc. all of which could run into Billions of Rupees.
In addition, viewers will have to purchase either set-top-boxes for use with analog receivers or new digital receivers. It may be recalled that with the new development in TV technology, the earlier Cathode-Ray-Tube (CRT) type TV receivers were replaced by slim type LCD/LED TV receivers during the last couple of years. Today, CRT receivers are no longer available in the market. Hence, changing receivers will not be an issue for our viewers, as long as it carries benefits.
In the event the Government decides to adopt the DTTB system, it will be necessary to introduce new laws and regulations to regulate the new DTTB industry, and considering the complexities involved, it is best if a total new Parliament Act is passed, with appropriate amendments to both the SLRC Act and SLT Act. The COM has already decided to amend both these Acts as mentioned above. It is therefore appropriate if the Committee to be appointed for this purpose also be given the mandate to study the desirability of introducing DTTB in Sri Lanka considering costs and benefits as well as viewer preferences and service provider views.
Though the GoSL entered into an agreement with JICA to pursue the matter in 2014, with the change of Government in 2015, the matter was left in abeyance. Under the new Government, the matter is being considered, but no decision has been made as to when it will be implemented and which DTTB standard to adopt, as learned by the writer when he started writing this piece. However, according to a news item telecast in the evening of 19.01.2021, the Japanese Government has offered assistance to Sri Lanka to switch over to DTTB as described in JICA Report issued in 2014, and the Cabinet Spokesman Minister said that Sri Lanka would soon adopt the new system.
CONCLUSION
Sri Lanka will be completing 100 years of public radio broadcasting in four years hence, and has come a long way going through various stages of development. Initially, there were no separate laws to regulate the industry, and the state-owned service provider used to do that function. This position remains unchanged to date and only recently that the Government has considered establishing separate organizations to provide regulatory function. Only the amendment of SLRC Act and SLT Act are being considered along with setting up a new Commission for regulating broadcasting of radio and television services. Hence, there is a need to consider amending these two Acts together with amending the SLBC Act.
With the proposed introduction of digital television transmission in Sri Lanka as reported by the Cabinet spokesman, the Writer suggests that the amendment of the above three Acts should be taken up along with formulating a new Act to cover Digital Transmission Broadcasting since all four are interlinked, before the actual transition takes place. It is hoped that with the introduction of digital TV transmissions the quality of programme content will also improve concurrently.
Features
All in the mind!

The Buddha, born as Prince Siddhartha, attained Enlightenment and Parinibbana all on a Vesak full-moon day, would have never anticipated that millions of followers of his doctrine would be celebrating this day, all over the world with festivities, over 2500 years later. Perhaps, what is happening in his name is not what he expected, indulging in festivities than following the path he showed for ultimate detachment. Perhaps, as an inevitable consequence of Buddha Dhamma’s transformation, by his followers, to a religion was the emergence of Buddhist art, culture, literature etc. Though this has, no doubt, enriched the lives of many, including non-Buddhists, with the displays of creativity at the highest level in these festivities, we should not forget the core message of the Buddha.
In the search for the reasons for the ever-pervading sense of dissatisfaction and the way to overcome it, the Buddha became the unsurpassed analyst of the human mind and thoughts, his concepts being validate by science, two and a half millennia later! Though Hans Berger, the inventor of the Electro Encephalogram (EEG), which records the electrical activity of the brain, is credited with the proposition that the brain is always busy, the Buddha not only stated that the mind is constantly bombarding us but also showed us how to control the mind. He also showed that the world around us was a creation of our mind and had included the mind also as a sense, on top of the five senses acknowledged by scientists. His concept that the mind is the sixth, the modifier sense is validated now, as it is shown that what see is what we want to see and what we hear is what we want to hear etc.
One of the biggest problems we have is endless thinking. As we wake up in the morning, we think of what happened yesterday or about the dreams we had the previous night. One can even go to the extent of saying that our thoughts are bombarding us even in sleep in the form of dreams. Though some of these thoughts are productive, in the main we torture ourselves thinking how we could have done better, even though it is an exercise in futility as what happened in the past cannot be undone. Our mind gets attached to some events in the past and have endless thoughts about these events which is of no use other than leading to a sense of depression. We then think of what we have to do tomorrow and anxiety creeps in. In this process we forget what is most important; the present! Scientists explain all this based on the Default mode network (DMN) in our brains, a set of connected parts of the brain which acts as a network which is responsible for remembering the past and imagining the future as well as thinking of others. Some scientists opine that it is the neurological basis for the ‘self.’
The Buddha pointed out that whatever misdeed happened in the past is like the pain one gets when hit with an arrow fired by someone else and that thinking again and again about it is like taking a second arrow and stabbing yourself with it. Though the pain inflicted by the first arow is natural, the second is our own making which prolongs the agony by torturing ourselves. What is needed is the avoidance of overthinking and being aware of the thoughts. Emptying the mind of the bombarding unnecessary thoughts increases awareness. Instead of being the driver of the car, we should attempt to be the passenger who is at liberty to enjoy the view and this could be achieved by mindfulness, a concept introduced by the Buddha. There is ever increasing scientific evidence, using dynamic MRI studies and PET scan studies, that mindfulness meditation reduces the activity of the DMN in our brains.
Mindfulness meditation is a way of slowing down thinking, concentrating on the present whilst getting rid of unnecessary baggage of thoughts of the past and the future. Emptying the mind of thoughts that act as a noise imparts a sense of clarity. It is not an easy task as we are attempting to go against what the brain is programmed to do via the DMN which functions to preserve the self. Unfortunately, mindfulness has become big business and the Buddha is not even credited for introducing the concept!
Thinking is an essential process in human development as well as human destruction, as exemplified by many wars raging around us at this moment. Right thinking is one of essentials in the Noble Eightfold Path, the Buddha laid for us for the purpose of achieving ultimate detachment. In addition to thinking correctly, we should get rid of harmful thoughts which leads to renouncing attachment, kindness and letting go of harmful intentions. On the basis of this a new modality of treatment has emerged for mental illnesses; cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) which teaches patients that some thoughts are false and also to recognise which thoughts are useful and which are harmful, one of the most effective being mindfulness-based CBT.
It is important to know when to think and when not to and as the Buddha stated, “Think when it is useful but do not be a slave to thoughts, which is the basis of wisdom.”
Buddha also showed that by progressively suppressing thoughts one could reach a stage where awareness exists without thoughts and could go further where there is no awareness either, resulting in ultimate detachment. Once you reach this stage, thoughts are used only as and when necessary, without any attachment at all. Thus, the Buddha showed that all is in the mind including the way to control.
The inspiration to pen these Vesak thoughts came by watching an excellent video forwarded by Ven Teldeniyaye Amitha Thera of Nottingham Shanti Vihara, in the course of fortnightly Vipassana meditation sessions conducted via Zoom. My respectful thanks go to Ven Amitha Thera and I highly recommend “What Happens When You Stop Thinking? Buddhism’s answer” which is available on YouTube. The link is: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tfTiA2_FtEw)
Happy Vesak!
By Dr Upul Wijayawardhana
Features
Dhammam Saranam

After a Dhamma session I attended, a participant inquired about the meaning of taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Triratna). A longtime meditation practitioner volunteered that it is a powerful mantra that helps to awaken the mind and go to the higher self. I have no idea what he meant by that, but a flood of emotions rushed my mind. Empathy for the believer, for one; but it occurred to me that I have not given much thought about it either, at least for quite a while.
The fact of the matter is that taking refuge in the ‘Three Jewels’ is our tradition. A tradition is just that, the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, with no questions asked. The term refuge is defined as a condition of being safe or sheltered from pursuit, danger, or trouble. What is the danger we are seeking shelter from? As a child, I had my own explanations: according to Buddhacharithaya we were taught, Buddha was omniscience and omnipotent, and there was no doubt that such powers could protect you from any danger.
A similar mystic power was attributed to Dhamma as well; leaving the radio on in full volume when the protective suttas were broadcast was assured to bring safety and health. Sangha, on the other hand, were there to bless us in good and tough times: moving into a new house, starting a new job, recuperating from an illness, or even after death to secure a better afterlife by transferring merits.
Such musing aside, I wonder if this tradition has been satisfactorily explained to us, not just as children but as adults as well. Especially, how Dhamma could be a refuge or what is expected when we recite Dhammam Saranam ever so often? It occurred to me that there is a gap in our education. An investigation of the literature reveals that I am not alone, scholars too have identified this shortcoming: our Buddhist education has failed.
I received good grades in Dhamma studies, and I memorised the entire book we used for our ordinary level exam; even then, how is my knowledge of Dhamma incomplete? As not many undertake Dhamma studies after leaving school, how and when such a gap in education could be filled? Well, it has been a problem with historical origins, and the collapse of socio-religious institutions of the country bear witness to this fact, the scholars reason. If we agree with the scholars’ notion that our Dhamma education is inadequate, it behooves us to explore what part of it was left out of our education.
Right after the Parinibbana, the Sangha recognised the need for preserving Dhamma, and they produced the system of memorisation and interpretation of it for the benefit of the followers. This is the system that Arahant Mahinda brought to Sri Lanka. When many members of the Sangha were decimated during Great Famine in the first century BCE, the question arose whether learning and preservation of Dhamma was more important than practice.
The advocates of learning and preservation prevailed. By the beginning of seventeenth century, the practice had completely disappeared, and Buddhism was reduced to a set of rituals acquired from other traditions in the hands of Ganinnanses. When venerable Welivita Saranankara thero (1698-1778) started the Buddhist revival, he had to learn Pali and reinterpret the Dhamma.
This process of reinterpretation continues to date. Venerable Sangha tries to do this for the benefit of laity, in person and using all other available media. Scholars analyse it and write volumes for the sake of knowledge, and devotees follow various meditation recipes hoping it will dawn on them and lead to spiritual salvation. Whatever path followed, there are several pitfalls that must be avoided for a successful outcome.
These are the drawbacks that our Buddhist education has failed to avoid: First, the goal of education must be identified, and Dhamma relevant for the goals of the followers must be taught. Second, the origin and purpose of Pali and Sinhala commentaries must be understood, and their relevance must be verified. Third, the bondage to tradition must be relaxed, otherwise, we get trapped in a vicious cycle. Lastly, Dhamma must be taught in terms that are accessible to modern society.
Returning to the main question, let us focus on Dhamma first: the Pali word Dhamma has many meanings, but here it refers to what the Buddha taught, which is represented by Tipitaka, the Theravadin’s Pali Canon. Then the question arises whether it is necessary to absorb the entire contents of the twelve-thousand-page Canon to grasp the meaning of Dhamma? Scholars are of the opinion that it is not necessary; they point out that the essence of Dhamma is captured in the first two sermons of the Buddha given at the Deer Park in Isipatana to the five ascetics.
Yes, everything one needs to know about Dhamma is captured in these two suttas (Nanamoli 1995). The remaining ten thousand plus Suttas are on various explanations of his teaching by Buddha to suit different audiences and occasions. They do not deviate from the contents of the first two, and that consistency is further proof of this summation. Some scholars go even further, they say that the simple verse uttered by Assaji in response to Upatissa’s question encapsulates the essence of the Dhamma:
Of those things that arise from a cause,
The Tathagata has told the cause,
And also, what their cessation is:
This is the doctrine of the Great Recluse.
Everything in twelve thousand pages of text condensed into a single verse! In modern parlance, this verse means “When A is, B is; A arising, B arises; When A is not, B is not; A ceasing, B ceases.” It can be further simplified to ‘Everything comes to existence because of causes and conditions. If we had to stop something from coming into existence, its causes and conditions must be eliminated.’ According to science, this is the law of cause and effect that applies to all phenomena in this universe. Upatissa was said to have become sotapanna, the first stage to liberation upon hearing this verse. Dhamma is also referred to as Hethu Pala Dahama for this reason.
In fact, this simple verse, known as the Paticcasamuppada Gatha, can be considered as the first principle from which the Dhamma in its entirety can be derived. If it governs everything, it must apply to the cycle of samsara as well, ending of which is the supreme goal. Upatissa was said to have sufficient training to unravel the complex message contained in this simple verse and see the Dhamma. Can we get a glimpse of this rationalising process?
If something comes to existence due to causes and effects, it must have a beginning, a progression, and an end. In science, it is called a process, an activity, but not a static object. Just like running, eating, or growing. It does not make sense, you may say; how can this paper on which this essay is printed, held in my hands, which I can feel, smell, and taste if I wish, not be a thing? That is the conventional way of thinking. The other way to look at it is to see its history.
The newsprint was produced from pulp that came from a pine, spruce, or a fir tree growing in the northern hemisphere. The trees grew from seeds, which came from pollen and so on. Every transformation involved in that process required some conditions: chemicals, heat, and water to make paper, and soil, rain, and cold climate for the pine trees to grow. Contemplating the causes and conditions of any phenomenon is not only a fun exercise for a science student, but also a way to meditate on impermanence by anyone interested. However, the way we relate to time gets in the way.
We humans have evolved accustomed to the day-night cycle. Compared to that twenty-four-hour cycle, some processes appear fast while some others appear unimaginably slow. As Einstein pointed out, time is a relative concept. A rock may appear to be a thing, but it is also a process: it is hardened magma that will eventually erode, wash into the ocean, move with tectonic plates, and end up as magma once more. In human time scale, that process is unfathomable, but in cosmic time scale it is a mere split second.
If the earth were twenty-four hours old, humans would have existed only for three seconds, for example. On the other extreme, some insects live only a few hours. For them, in their timescale, humans may appear to be eternal. It may be hard to wrap our heads around, but if we can leave time factor aside, everything becomes a process, which means they are in a state of constant change. This is even more so at atomic level. The scientific term for this state of continuous change is flux. That is what Dhamma teaches us, but were we told that in the class? Yes, in Pali it is called Anicca. Any phenomenon that arises this way is referred to as Sankhara, meaning put together or compounded (Dhammapada verse 277).
All natural phenomena like birth, aging, sickness, and death are such processes. While they are inevitable aspects of life, Dhamma pays more attention to mental processes, which also have the same properties. They too are in flux and devoid of substance. Another characteristic of processes is that as they depend on conditions and causes, they are not under the control of an agent, neither human nor superhuman. Justifiably, free will or conation becomes debatable under such conditions.
That means processes lack substance, purpose, or agency; they keep running based on the causes and conditions. There is no doer. This is defined as no self, which Pali describes as Anatta. According to Dhamma, the notion of a permanent self is merely a convention. However, there is a crucial distinction about mental processes; the human mind can be developed to have some control over mental processes, a key element of Dhamma.
by Geewananda Gunawardana, Ph.D.
(To be concluded)
Features
Championing Geckos, Conservation, and Cross-Disciplinary Research in Sri Lanka

In the vibrant tapestry of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity, where rainforests pulse with life and endemic creatures lurk under every leaf, Dr. Nimal D. Rathnayake has carved a unique niche — one that combines the precision of a scientist with the strategic insight of a marketer.
A leading voice in herpetology and a respected academic in the fields of tourism and management, Dr. Rathnayake is a multidisciplinary force, passionately working to conserve reptiles — especially the often-overlooked geckos — while also reimagining how humans interact with nature.
A Childhood Rooted in Discovery
Dr. Rathnayake’s journey into the world of reptiles began in his youth. Growing up with an innate curiosity about the natural world, he joined the Youth Exploration Society of Sri Lanka (YES), a group dedicated to inspiring young people to explore and understand the environment. His early exposure to fieldwork through YES and later, the Amphibia and Reptile Research Organization of Sri Lanka (ARROS), laid the foundation for a lifelong engagement with herpetology.
ARROS, a grassroots organisation with a strong emphasis on field-based research and conservation, gave Dr. Rathnayake the platform to pursue his fascination with amphibians and reptiles more seriously. It was here that he honed his skills in species identification, ecological monitoring, and data collection — skills that would become essential to his later academic pursuits.
The Silent Stars: Geckos of Sri Lanka
While Sri Lanka is renowned for its charismatic wildlife — elephants, leopards, and blue whales — Dr. Rathnayake has dedicated much of his scientific career to one of the island’s most understated yet ecologically important creatures: geckos.
Sri Lanka is home to more than 50 species of geckos, many of them endemic and highly localised. These small, nocturnal reptiles play crucial roles in the ecosystem as insect predators and as prey for larger animals. Despite their importance, geckos are often ignored in mainstream conservation efforts.
Dr. Rathnayake’s research on geckos has helped shift that narrative. Through detailed ecological studies, he has contributed to understanding their behaviour, habitat preferences, and conservation status. His fieldwork has included both rainforest-dwelling species such as the Cnemaspis geckos — which cling to the moist boulders of the wet zone — and dry-zone species like the agile Hemidactylus that thrive in arid, rocky landscapes.
Much of his work has highlighted the vulnerability of geckos to habitat fragmentation and deforestation. Many species have extremely limited ranges, making them especially sensitive to environmental change. Dr. Rathnayake advocates for the inclusion of microhabitats — such as rocky outcrops and forest understory — in conservation plans, which are often overlooked in broader biodiversity strategies.
A Scholar of many languages: Science, Marketing, and Management
Dr. Rathnayake’s academic career is as diverse as the ecosystems he studies. With over 25 published papers and several books, he has explored topics that span from ecological fieldwork to the intricacies of tourism marketing and destination management. His dual expertise in science and business places him in a unique position to craft interdisciplinary solutions to environmental problems.
One of his key areas of focus is ecotourism — a sector with tremendous potential in biodiversity-rich Sri Lanka. Drawing from his research in marketing and management, Dr. Rathnayake emphasises the importance of balancing tourism growth with environmental responsibility. He is a vocal advocate for wildlife-based tourism models that prioritise education, ethical practices, and community involvement.
His work often draws on field data from herpetological studies — such as gecko population dynamics or habitat assessments — to inform tourism planning. For instance, understanding the specific conditions required by a rare Cnemaspis species can help guide decisions about where to place hiking trails or visitor lodges, minimising disruption to fragile habitats.
Building Bridges Between Academia and Conservation
One of Dr. Rathnayake’s most valuable contributions lies in his ability to bridge academic research with practical, on-the-ground impact. His collaborations with local communities, conservation NGOs, and tourism authorities have helped translate science into policy and practice.
He has also been a dedicated mentor to young scientists, guiding students and early-career researchers through fieldwork, data analysis, and publication. His roots in YES and ARROS continue to inform this commitment to youth engagement. For Dr. Rathnayake, fostering a love for science in young people is not just a passion — it’s a strategy for ensuring long-term conservation.
His outreach also extends beyond academia. He frequently speaks at public forums, contributes to media features, and participates in educational programmes aimed at demystifying reptiles. In a culture where snakes and lizards are often feared or misunderstood, his efforts to raise awareness are a crucial part of building public support for conservation.
Sri Lanka’s biodiversity faces increasing pressure from urbanisation, agriculture, climate change, and illegal wildlife trade. Dr. Rathnayake warns that without strategic, science-informed planning, many of the country’s lesser-known species — including endemic geckos — could disappear before the public even knows they exist.
He emphasises that conservation can no longer exist in isolation. “We must think across disciplines — biology, economics, policy, education — if we are to create sustainable models for both nature and people,” he often says.
His vision includes scaling up community-based ecotourism, promoting habitat restoration projects that include gecko microhabitats, and advocating for stronger legal protections for reptiles. Through his research and advocacy, Dr. Rathnayake is working to ensure that conservation in Sri Lanka evolves with the times — grounded in rigorous science, yet responsive to social and economic realities.
In the world of conservation science, specialisation is often the norm. Yet, Dr. Rathnayake has forged a different path — one that values integration over isolation, and collaboration over competition. From the quiet movements of a forest gecko to the complex dynamics of an eco-tourism, he navigates it all with depth and clarity.
As he continues his work, Dr. Rathnayake remains a strong voice in both national and international discussions on biodiversity. His story is a reminder that impactful science isn’t confined to labs or lecture halls. Sometimes, it begins with a child watching a lizard on a tree trunk — and grows into a lifetime of discovery, mentorship, and conservation.
By Ifham Nizam
-
Business6 days ago
Aitken Spence Travels continues its leadership as the only Travelife-Certified DMC in Sri Lanka
-
Latest News5 days ago
NPP win Maharagama Urban Council
-
Business6 days ago
LinearSix and InsureMO® expand partnership
-
Business4 days ago
John Keells Properties and MullenLowe unveil “Minutes Away”
-
Sports1 day ago
ASBC Asian U22 and Youth Boxing Championships from Monday
-
Features1 day ago
SAITM Graduates Overcome Adversity, Excel Despite Challenges
-
News1 day ago
Destined to be pope:Brother says Leo XIV always wanted to be a priest
-
Foreign News2 days ago
Mexico sues Google over ‘Gulf of America’ name change