Features

Melody in the military : A brief history of military bands

Published

3 years ago

2022/09/30

By Uditha Devapriya
udakdev1@gmail.com

On the field and onstage, military bands play a decorative function today. Originally formed to accompany armies to their battles, they flourished in the West after the 17th century. A number of factors, including the rise of trade, industry, literacy, and imperialism, combined to popularise it in Europe and the United States. Yet the history of military and cadet bands goes beyond the West. Though they bear Western insignia now, these troupes are no more Western than are artillery, mathematics, even science. Indeed, they were as much at home among Europeans of the 18th century as they were in Sri Lanka of the 15th.

Military bands emerged when the crescent met the cross, or literally when the Europeans met the Saracens and the Turks during the Crusades. By then the division of the world into West and East had been complete. Yet the writing of music, which military bands obviously depended on, long predates this division: the first written sources on the subject come to us from southern Iraq, or Mesopotamia. The cuneiform script materialised in Ancient Sumer in 3000 BC. Nearly four centuries later, we hear of harps and lyres, used on their own but also as accompaniments to various functions and ceremonies.

Civilisation flourished at roughly the same time in Sumer and Egypt. Archaeologists have unearthed remains of clappers, scrapers, rattlers, clarinets, and oboes in these territories. Sometimes they appear in both places at once, but often they emerge in the one before the other: the clarinet, for instance, is missing in Mesopotamia, but was indigenised in Egypt by 2700 BC. What we can gather is that these instruments acquired a rhythm and pattern of their own, in line with the material conditions of their societies.

Louis XIV

From the early period to the Crusades, there is a long historical development. In the second millennium BC the cuneiform script spread to Anatolia. As with Mesopotamia and Egypt, a musical culture soon evolved. Yet unlike in those two societies, in Anatolia or Turkey music served a different function, more ritualistic; this explains the horn, which was never popular in Mesopotamia, but was indispensable for the Turks. During the Middle Ages the Ottoman Empire emerged as a formidable power and made inroads to Western civilisation. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 thus ensured that, for the next 500 years, “all things Turkish” would intrude on the Western consciousness. These included the military band.

The Ottoman Turks divided the world between what was and what was not theirs. They internalised this dichotomy, at home, by means of a division between believers and non-believers, granting the latter a status of protected persons they referred to as dhimmi. On the other hand, identity being a fluid construct, the State had the right to strip persons of such status and compel them to conform to the dominant Muslim culture. Yet the historian Fernand Braudel has noted that while non-believers wanted to convert, the Ottoman State felt it in their interests not to accommodate them, since converting them meant depriving the Treasury of the taxes it collected from non-believers.

In certain cases, however, the Ottoman State reserved its prerogative to convert. One such prerogative was the right to conscript Christian subjects from the Balkan regions. During the reign of Sultan Orkun (1326-1361) these conscripts were raised to form the most formidable contingent in the Middle Ages, the Janissaries (or “new troops”). The Janissaries then raised their own band, which they called the mehter: the forerunner of today’s military and cadet bands. At first the mehter consisted, among other instruments, of trumpets, kettledrums, bass drums, cymbals, shawms, and Turkish crescents, the latter a percussion stick (known as the “Jingling Johnny”) largely neglected today. Performed together, these instruments often “shrieked in unison” and emphasised “the ruler’s overwhelming might.”

Militaristic though its function was, the mehter played in peacetime as well, especially for the Sultan: on mornings before prayers, and on evenings after prayers. European diplomats in Turkey obviously could not escape these influences. Returning from the Crusades, kings and nobles brought with them their ideas for military contingents, based on what they had seen on “the other side.” Until then the horn and the trumpet had been the mainstay of the European band. The Ottomans were more varied: one chronicler lists clarions, horns, pipes, drums, and cymbals among their instruments, played “to excite their spirit and courage.” As for drums and kettledrums, these were “unknown” and largely alien to European militaries. At the siege of Damietta in 1249, for example, the Ottomans’ use of the kettledrums is said to have had a “frightening impact” on European soldiers.

The Ottoman influence spread to Britain and France. The serpent and the trombone became the first two major additions to the British military band. The oboe is reported to have made its first appearance in 1678 AD, during the reign of Charles II. The cleric Thoinot Arbeau, in his record of Renaissance life, Orchésographie, lists down the war instruments used by the French army; the oboe is not among them. By 1825, though, the French infantry had among its inventory of 36 instruments four oboes and two trombones.

The disbanding of military contingents after the Crusades elevated the role of music in the armies of Europe. We are told of minstrels accompanying the King of France to Calais in 1347, during the Hundred Years’ War, at a not unreasonable pay of “12 pence per diem.” Once at home, these minstrels formed guilds from which military bands would later fill their ranks. This set the foundation for the Europeanisation of Turkish music, a process which culminated with the French Revolution, Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt, and the Treaty of Paris, not to mention the disbanding of the Janissary troops in 1826 AD. The Treaty of Paris, which “sealed 40 years of peace” between France and Britain, no doubt gave the militaries of both countries some space to absorb and add to these influences.

Janissary troops, an inescapable feature of cultural life in Europe at this time, had long caught the attention of ambassadors, artists, rulers, and even naturalists, who had noted their formations, instruments, their ranks and their hierarchies. It wasn’t only what was played, but how it was played that entranced these Westerners: one writer in 1891, for instance, refers to soldiers speaking of Turks “throwing up a bass drumstick into the air after the beat and catching it with the other hand in time for the next.” These had a profound influence on military band formations, as much then as today.

Starting with the Calvinist-Lutheran states of central and north Germany and extending later to Austria-Hungary, pseudo-Turkish music became a feature of court music; right until the mid-18th century, when a rift developed between popular and elite culture, these festivities entranced ruler and ruled alike. It was a time of mass artistic plagiarism: popular tunes, for instance, “borrowed from folk songs, theatre songs, patriotic songs, and new compositions”, while Bach (“Symphonies for Wind Instruments”), Mozart (“Serenades K. 375 and 388”), and Beethoven (“Octet in E-flat Major”) found favour with and became “familiar to the officers and wealthier classes of the fighting men within the various regiments.”

Military bands thrived on the whims of rulers, and on social and political change. Louis XIV, the “Sun King”, played a not insignificant part in the popularisation of their music, after he entrusted their training to the composer Jean Baptiste-Lully. Following Austria’s wars with the Turks, Frederick the Great played an equally pivotal role in shaping military music as an expression of the growing tide of European nationalism. When Mahmud II disbanded the Janissaries in 1826, after more than 135,000 of them revolted against him, it was left to European states to fill the resulting lacuna. These developments marked the beginning of the Europeanisation, and Westernisation, of an Oriental artistic form.

Meanwhile, in the United States, the War of Independence did for military bands what the Crusades had done for their European counterparts five centuries earlier. There the drum and the fife became the most sought-after instruments. Curiously enough, however, it was not until the arrival of a Prussian nobleman, Baron Friedrich von Steuben, invited by none less than Benjamin Franklin, that the US Continental Army began turning into a professional body. We are told that music was soon regarded so highly that “a subordinate inspector was appointed for its standardisation.” Not surprisingly, sales of books and staff papers soared at this time, signalling the importance of band contingents.

However, not until the late 19th century did these contingents gain the respect and esteem they are held in today. By 1912 they had commanded enough respect to warrant their own tournaments: a “grand international contest” held in France that year, for instance, offered a sum of £500, equivalent to £57,000 or Rs. 26 million today.

Buttressing all this was another development: the formation of school cadet corps across Western Europe. These corps spread wide and far, taking what had been an Oriental art form to the East and teaching it along Western lines. By now, thanks to the rigidity with which imperialism imposed its culture on its colonies, the Ottoman origins of the military band had been forgotten; it hence wouldn’t be long until, as with mathematics and music, science and art, the Oriental roots of yet another subject would fade away.

The writer is an international relations analyst, researcher, and columnist

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Features

Amid Winds and Waves: Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean – references Prof. Gamini Keerawella

Published

2 days ago

2025/11/7

Thilina Walpola

The following are the references for the four-part article, Amid Winds and Waves: Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean byProf. Gamini Keerawella, published in The Island on 10, 11, 12 and 13 Nov.

Acharya, Amitav. 2014. The End of American World Order. Cambridge: Polity Press

Amrith, Sunil S. 2013. Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Baldwin, David A. 2016. Power and International Relations: A Conceptual Approach. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Brewster, David. 2014. India’s Ocean: The Story of India’s Bid for Regional Leadership. London: Routledge.

Blanchard, Jean-Marc F., and Colin Flint. 2017. “The Geopolitics of China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative.” Geopolitics 22 (2): 223–245.

Bose, Sugata. 2006. A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Browning, Christopher S. 2006. “Small, Smart and Salient? Rethinking Identity in the Small States Literature.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 19 (4): 669–684. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557570601003536

Buzan, Barry, and Ole Wæver. 2003. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Campbell, Kurt M., and Iain H. Houlden, eds. 1989. The Indian Ocean: Regional and Strategic Studies. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Chacko, Priya. 2021. “Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean: Geopolitical Crosscurrents.” Third World Quarterly 42 (8): 1647–1665.

Chaturvedi, Sanjay, and Michal Okano-Heijmans, eds. 2019. Connectivity and the Indo-Pacific: Concepts, Challenges, and Prospects. Singapore: Springer.

Chaudhuri, K. N. 1985. Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crawford, Neta C. 2000. Rethinking International Relations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Cordner, Lee. 2010. “Rethinking Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean Region.” Journal of the Indian Ocean Region 6 (1): 67–85

Das Gupta, Ashin, and M. N. Pearson, eds. 1987. India and the Indian Ocean, 1500–1800. Calcutta: Oxford University Press.

de Silva, Colvin R. 1953. Ceylon under the British Occupation : 1795-1833. Colombo: Ceylon Apothecaries

Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52 (4): 887–917.

Gunasekara, T. 2021. Maritime Diplomacy and Small State Strategy: Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 44(2): 275–292.

Hey, Jeanne A. K., ed. 2003. Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Holmes, James R., and Toshi Yoshihara. 2008. Chinese Naval Strategy in the 21st Century: The Turn to Mahan. London: Routledge.

Hourani, George F. 1995. Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. Rev. ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Ingebritsen, Christine. 2006. Small States in International Relations. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Kaplan, Robert D. 2010. Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American Power. New York: Random House.

Keerawella, Gamini. 2024. India’s Naval Strategic ascent ane the Evolving Natal Security Dynamics of the Indian Ocean-BCIS Research Monograph Series 2024/1. Colombo: Bandaranaike Centre for International Studies.

Kuik, Cheng-Chwee. 2008. “The Essence of Hedging: Malaysia and Singapore’s Response to a Rising China.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 30 (2): 159–185. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs30-2a.

Li, Mingjiang. 2018. China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative, Africa, and the Middle East. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.

Mahan, Alfred Thayer. 1890. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Marx, Karl. 1952. The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. New York: International Publishers.

Medcalf, Rory. 2020. Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the Contest for the World’s Pivotal Region. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Mignolo, Walter D. 2011. The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Pearson, M. N. 2003. The Indian Ocean. London: Routledge.

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Schweller, Randall L. 1994. “Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In.” International Security 19 (1): 72–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539149.

Strange, Susan. 1988. States and Markets. London: Pinter.

Thorhallsson, Baldur, and Robert Steinmetz, eds. 2017. Small States and Shelter Theory: Iceland’s External Affairs. London: Routledge.

Till, Geoffrey. 2013. Seapower: A Guide for the Twenty-First Century. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.

Walt, Stephen M. 1987. The Origins of Alliances. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Wilson, Ernest J. 2015. Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

(Author is a former professor of Modern History at the University of Peradeniya. He could be contacted through Keerawellag@gmail.com)

Features

Vision of Dr. Gamani Corea and the South’s present development policy options

Published

3 days ago

2025/11/6

Sahan Weerasooriya

Dr. Gamani Core / Dr. Carlos Maria Correa

The ‘takes’ were numerous for the perceptive sections of the public from the Dr. Gamani Corea 100th birth anniversary oration delivered at ‘The Lighthouse’ auditorium, Colombo, by Dr. Carlos Maria Correa, Executive Director of the South Centre in Geneva on November 4th. The fact that Dr. Gamani Corea was instrumental in the establishment of the South Centre decades back enhanced the value of the presentation. The event was organized by the Gamani Corea Foundation.

The presentation proved to be both wide-ranging and lucid. The audience was left in no doubt as to what Dr. Gamani Corea (Dr. GC) bequeathed to the global South by way of developmental policy and thinking besides being enlightened on the historic, institutional foundations he laid for the furtherance of Southern economic and material wellbeing.

For instance, in its essential core Dr. GC’s vision for the South was given as follows: sustainable and equitable growth, a preference for trade over aid, basic structural reform of global economy, enhancement of the collective influence of developing countries in international affairs.

Given the political and economic order at the time, that is the sixties of the last century, these principles were of path-breaking importance. For example, the Cold War was at its height and the economic disempowerment of the developing countries was a major issue of debate in the South. The latter had no ‘say’ in charting their economic future, which task devolved on mainly the West and its prime financial institutions.

Against this backdrop, the vision and principles of Dr. G.C. had the potential of being ‘game changers’ for the developing world. The leadership provided by him to UNCTAD as its long-serving Secretary General and to the Group of 77, now Plus China, proved crucial in, for instance, mitigating some economic inequities which were borne by the South. The Integrated Program for Commodities, which Dr. G.C. helped in putting into place continues to serve some of the best interests of the developing countries.

It was the responsibility of succeeding generations to build on this historic basis for economic betterment which Dr. G.C. helped greatly to establish. Needless to say, all has not gone well for the South since the heyday of Dr. G.C. and it is to the degree to which the South re-organizes itself and works for its betterment as a cohesive and united pressure group that could help the hemisphere in its present ordeals in the international economy. It could begin by rejuvenating the Non-aligned Movement (NAM), for instance.

The coming into being of visionary leaders in the South, will prove integral to the economic and material betterment of the South in the present world order or more accurately, disorder. Complex factors go into the making of leaders of note but generally it is those countries which count as economic heavyweights that could also think beyond self-interest that could feature in filling this vacuum.

A ‘take’ from the Dr. GC memorial oration that needs to be dwelt on at length by the South was the speaker’s disclosure that 46 percent of current global GDP is contributed by the South. Besides, most of world trade takes place among Southern countries. It is also the heyday of multi-polarity and bipolarity is no longer a defining feature of the international political and economic order.

In other words, the global South is now well placed to work towards the realization of some of Dr. GC’s visionary principles. As to whether these aims could be achieved will depend considerably on whether the South could re-organize itself, come together and work selflessly towards the collective wellbeing of the hemisphere.

From this viewpoint the emergence of BRICS could be seen as holding out some possibilities for collective Southern economic betterment but the grouping would need to thrust aside petty intra-group power rivalries, shun narrow national interests, place premium value on collective wellbeing and work towards the development of its least members.

The world is yet to see the latter transpiring and much will depend on the quality of leadership formations such as BRICS could provide. In the latter respect Dr. GC’s intellectual leadership continues to matter. Measuring-up to his leadership standards is a challenge for BRICS and other Southern groupings if at all they visualize a time of relative collective progress for the hemisphere.

However, the mentioned groupings would need to respect the principle of sovereign equality in any future efforts at changing the current world order in favour of all their member countries. Ideally, authoritarian control of such groupings by the more powerful members in their fold would need to be avoided. In fact, progress would need to be predicated on democratic equality.

Future Southern collectivities intent on bettering their lot would also need to bring into sharp focus development in contrast to mere growth. This was also a concern of Dr. G.C. Growth would be welcome, if it also provides sufficiently for economic equity. That is, economic plans would come to nought if a country’s resources are not equally distributed among its people.

The seasoned commentator is bound to realize that this will require a degree of national planning. Likewise, the realization ought to have dawned on Southern governments over the decades that unregulated market forces cannot meet this vital requirement in national development.

Thus, the oration by Dr. Carlos Maria Correa had the effect of provoking his audience into thinking at some considerable length on development issues. Currently, the latter are not in vogue among the majority of decision and policy makers of the South but they will need ‘revisiting’ if the best of Dr. GC’s development thinking is to be made use of.

What makes Dr. GC’s thinking doubly vital are the current trade issues the majority of Southern countries are beginning to face in the wake of the restrictive trade practices inspired by the US. Dr. GC was an advocate of international cooperation and it is to the degree to which intra-South economic cooperation takes hold that the South could face the present economic challenges successfully by itself as a collectivity. An urgent coming together of Southern countries could no longer be postponed.

Features

Attitude development: Key to national progress

Published

3 days ago

2025/11/6

Sahan Weerasooriya

In a developing country like Sri Lanka, one of the main challenges, is developing attitudes and social values of its citizens. Attitudes are the behaviours and beliefs that shape an individual’s or society’s actions. These attitudes have a significant impact on personal and societal development. Therefore, developing the right attitudes is crucial for the progress of a nation.

Why is Attitude Development Important?

Attitude development has a profound impact on various aspects of society. For instance, promoting efficiency, creativity, and innovation can accelerate economic growth. When citizens have a positive attitude towards work and entrepreneurship, they are more likely to contribute to the country’s economic development. Similarly, preserving and promoting social and cultural values can strengthen social harmony and cohesion. A society with a positive attitude towards diversity and inclusivity is more likely to be peaceful and prosperous.

Role of Education in Attitude Development

Education is a key factor in shaping attitudes. A well-educated population is more likely to have a positive attitude towards life, work, and society. Education helps individuals develop critical thinking skills, which enable them to make informed decisions and solve problems effectively. Moreover, education can promote values such as tolerance, empathy, and respect for others, which are essential for building a harmonious society.

Impact of Media on Attitude Development

The media plays a significant role in shaping attitudes. With the advent of social media, people are exposed to a vast amount of information, which can influence their attitudes and behaviours. The media can promote positive attitudes and values, such as kindness, compassion, and social responsibility. However, it can also perpetuate negative attitudes and stereotypes, which can be detrimental to society.

Role of Community Participation in Attitude Development

Community participation is essential for attitude development. When individuals participate in community service and volunteer work, they develop a sense of social responsibility and empathy towards others. Community participation can also promote values such as teamwork, leadership, and communication skills. Moreover, it can help build stronger, more cohesive communities.

Importance of Leadership in Attitude Development

Leadership plays a crucial role in shaping attitudes. Leaders can inspire and motivate individuals to adopt positive attitudes and behaviours. They can promote values such as integrity, accountability, and transparency, which are essential for building trust and confidence in institutions. Moreover, leaders can create a positive work culture that encourages innovation, creativity, and productivity.

Role of Parents and Teachers in Attitude Development

Parents and teachers play a vital role in shaping the attitudes of children. Children learn by observing and imitating adults, so it’s essential for parents and teachers to model positive attitudes and behaviours. They can promote values such as respect, kindness, and responsibility, which are essential for building a positive and productive society.

Benefits of Positive Attitudes

Positive attitudes have numerous benefits for individuals and society. They can improve mental and physical health, increase productivity, and enhance overall well-being. Positive attitudes can also promote better relationships, improve communication skills, and increase resilience. Moreover, they can inspire individuals to achieve their goals and pursue their passions.

Challenges of Developing Positive Attitudes

Developing positive attitudes can be challenging, especially in the face of adversity. It requires effort, commitment, and perseverance. Moreover, individuals may face resistance from others who are not supportive of change. However, with the right mindset and support, individuals can overcome these challenges and develop positive attitudes that benefit themselves and society.

Role of Technology in Attitude Development

Technology can play a significant role in attitude development. Online platforms and social media can provide access to information, resources, and support that can help individuals develop positive attitudes. Technology can also facilitate communication, collaboration, and networking, which are essential for building positive relationships and communities.

Future of Attitude Development

The future of attitude development is promising. With the increasing awareness of the importance of mental health, well-being, and social responsibility, more people are recognising the need to develop positive attitudes. Moreover, technological advancements and innovations can provide new opportunities for attitude development and social impact.

The attitude development is crucial for the progress of a nation. It requires a collective effort from individuals, institutions, and leaders to promote positive attitudes and values. By working together, we can build a society that is more harmonious, productive, and prosperous. By developing positive attitudes, we can overcome challenges, achieve our goals, and create a brighter future for ourselves and future generations.

Recommendations

To promote attitude development in Sri Lanka, we recommend the following:

* Integrate attitude development programmes in schools and universities

* Provide training and resources for parents and teachers to promote positive attitudes in children

* Encourage community participation and volunteer work

* Promote positive attitudes and values through media and social media

* Recognise and reward individuals and organisations that demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviours

By implementing these recommendations, we can create a society that values and promotes positive attitudes and behaviours. This will enable us to build a brighter future for ourselves and future generations.

By Jayantha K. Pathirana (M.A)
(Former Principal of Katuwana National School)