Midweek Review

Humanities in Medical Education

Published

1 year ago

2025/01/22

By Dr. Siri Galhenage
sirigalhenage@gmail.com

‘They are shallow animals, having always employed their minds about Body and Gut, they imagine that in the whole system of things there is nothing but Gut and Body’

Samuel Taylor Coleridge [1772-1834]

The above derisive comment regarding doctors was made by the renowned romantic poet and philosopher, over two centuries ago. He was aggrieved by the predominantly biological preoccupation by doctors in the practice of their craft, giving less credence to a broader perspective about life. He was perhaps roused by the growing interest in a natural basis for disease and healing during the Renaissance period [14 – 17 centuries] in the West, with the emergence of anatomically based scientific medicine, moving away from mystic and spiritual traditions.

A HOLISTIC APPROACH to the PRACTICE of MEDICINE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Over the years, scientific medicine has progressed, with the development of high-tech diagnostic techniques exploring deeply into the body, its tissues and cells, and the discovery of effective pharmaceutical weapons against organic disease. This powerful science-based biomedical tradition spread globally and has remained dominant, despite a greater conceptualisation of social and psychological issues pertaining to health and well-being. As a result, the medical profession has tended to develop a sense of therapeutic self-confidence, with a tendency to ignore the psychosocial aspects of medicine and the benefits of the doctor-patient relationship, giving less importance to a display of humanity. It is true to say that, as a result, there is a growing discontent towards the medical system and the medical profession in recent times.

The above disparity in healthcare has attracted the attention of medical educators around the globe, who have started introducing a holistic [broad-based] approach to training of doctors by incorporating Humanities in the medical curriculum. ‘A Good Doctor Treats the Disease; A Great Doctor Treats the Patient’.

It was heartening to read Randima Attygalle’s interview with Dr. Santhushi Amarasuriya titled, ‘Medical Humanities: an interdisciplinary approach to holistic health’ regarding the initiative by the Faculty of Medicine, Colombo, in establishing a Department of Medical Humanities [Sunday Island: Oct. 6, 2024]. I also read with interest the scholarly articles by Susantha Hewa, ‘Humanities in the ‘art’ of healing: A case for subject integration’ [The Island: Oct. 16, 2024] and by Prof. Liyanage Amarakirthi of the University of Peradeniya: ‘Increasing scholarly mutuality for holistic understanding of life: Some initial reflections’ [The Island: Nov. 6, 2024], addressing the need for subject integration.

ROLE of HUMANITIES in MEDICAL EDUCATION

The aim of including Humanities in medical education is to nurture the desirable personal qualities in a medical practitioner in becoming a healer in the true sense of the word.

1. In gaining a broader understanding of the human condition in order to adopt a more holistic approach towards the practice of medicine.

2. In developing empathy and compassion towards one’s patients while maintaining professional boundaries.

3. In acquiring appropriate and effective communication skills in dealing with patients, as well as respectful discourse with colleagues and the team that the doctor works with.

4. In maintaining professional boundaries and ethical and moral standards.

5. In cultivating personal growth and resilience in having to confront the many challenges and adverse circumstances faced during the course of a doctor’s professional life.

HUMANITIES: ETYMOLOGY AND SCOPE

The base word ‘human’ with its Latin root ‘Humanus’, which refers to the characteristics of mankind has generated a range of derivatives with shades of meaning. It has given birth to such terms as ‘humane’ [which refers to being compassionate]; ‘humanitarian’ [having the welfare of mankind at heart; ‘humanism’ [the belief in human effort rather than divinity]; ‘humanity’ [which connotes mankind and civilisation]; and ‘humanities’ [a collective of academic disciplines that study the human condition].

Humanities, as opposed to biological and physical sciences, embody a wide range of disciplines, such as languages, literature, the arts, history and philosophy, and their critical evaluation. Religion and divinity are not within the range of interest of humanities, although their relevance in the spiritual growth of mankind cannot be disregarded.

RELEVANCE of CLASSICAL LITERATURE

in MEDICAL HUMANITIES

My focus here is classical literature which is an integral part of the discipline of Humanities. Great works of literary art attempt to explore and transmit the full range and depth of human experience, calling into play our emotional and intellectual faculties. Literary analysts observe that art and literature have the capacity to ‘convey serious truths and significant ideals’, ‘broaden our understanding of human nature’, ‘kindle our imaginations’, ‘raise our spirits’ and ‘enhance our sensibility’ [to quote Prof. Frodsham, late Professor of comparative literature, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia]. Those works regarded as of high quality are deeply humanistic and provide insights which enrich human existence, elevating our lives to a higher plane of functioning.

Works of literary artistry provide socio-cultural awareness, psychological insights, moral and ethical consciousness, in addition to aesthetic appreciation – the confluence of all of which has now evolved into the notion of literary sensibility, first conceived by the legendary English poet Geoffrey Chaucer of Canterbury Tales fame. It is a sensibility every human being should aspire to develop, the doctor in particular, who is expected to take on the task of healing.

Great writers tend to exercise their literary talent in directing the reader in achieving personality growth vicariously through the portrayal of characters and the situations they create. It is an enriching experience which generates an appreciation of beauty, use of metaphor, psychosocial insights [intra-psychic and interpersonal] that reflect societal attitudes, and moral instruction.

NURTURING LITERARY SENSIBILITY

While strongly advocating the introduction of Humanities in Medical Education, I believe that there should also be a greater emphasis by educational authorities on nurturing reading ability in children from their early formative years, as a way of sensitising them to literature in their later life. Reading with children and exploring their thoughts about what is read and helping them to understand and articulate their thoughts about life within their capacity, is called ‘conversational reading’.

The more young children read, are read to, and are engaged in conversation that flows on from stories read, the more they begin to love books [and words], increase their vocabulary and enhance their communication skills. It enhances a child’s self-worth and personal identity sadly lacking in those who lag behind reading for whatever reason. What better way for children to be introduced to the world that they are to be part of than be immersed in a story that is all about beings that surround them? What better way for children to learn about ideas and speech patterns, how people interact and react, how dialogue reveals more about a person than what they say, and gain an understanding of empathy and compassion? There is no better way to convey moral instruction than by vicarious learning through reading, and no better way to enhance their thinking and reasoning, to generate creativity and to introduce them to a life rich in meaning.

We in Sri Lanka are endowed with an ancient literary tradition that fosters literary sensibility. As far back as between the 7th and 10th century AD, our ancestors scribbled their sentiments in poetry on the mirror wall of Sigiriya Rock [Sigiri Kurutu Gee]. Our ancient scholars produced great literary works such as Sandesha Kavya, Kavya Sekaraya, Guththilaya, Subhasithaya [to mention a few], and in the 15th Century AD, King Parakramabahu the 6th. gave patronage to literary discourse. As a nation, we hold a predisposition to develop literary sensibility.

A FEW EXAMPLES of LITERARY ART to

ILLUSTRATE THEIR VALUE IN

MEDICAL HUMANITIES

I have cited below, a few examples of literary art, many of global fame, in order to illustrate their value in understanding human nature by tapping into their allegorical meaning. It was not my intention to suggest including them in a reading list in medical humanities; although some of them may attract the interest of the medical educators and the general readership.

Rudyard Kipling, in his narrative masterpiece, ‘Kim’, takes a Tibetan Lama and his disciple across what he calls ‘the great and wonderful land of Hind’ [India] along ‘the grand trunk road, teeming with life’ [a metaphor he uses for the path of life’]. The travellers are on a quest for understanding of humanity with the hope of achieving personal growth.

In an inspiring piece of lyrical ballad, The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner, Samuel Coleridge, places his protagonist on board a ship and sends him off on a voyage – an archetypal journey of life with its trials and tribulations. The poet exposes the vulnerability of the human condition by making him commit an impulsive act of killing the albatross that guides him. He faces the wrath of nature, takes on board a burden of guilt and suffering, and on reaching the shore, embarks on a spiritual path, elevating him to being a productive human being.

Viktor Frankl, the celebrated Austrian psychiatrist of Jewish descent proposed the theory that the primary motivational force in man is to find meaning in life. He developed his theory, which gained wide application in medical practice through his direct personal experience as a prisoner in Auschwitz, the Nazi concentration camp, which led to his popular publication, ‘Man’s Search for Meaning’.

Leo Tolstoy, the Great Russian author skilfully constructs the character of Ivan Ilych in his much celebrated novella, ‘The Death of Ivan Ilych’. The author takes his protagonist, an upwardly mobile lawyer, to the top of a ladder, and makes him fall off it, both literary and metaphorically, into an abyss of misery. The crisis precipitates a terminal illness that makes him evaluate his life and gain insight into the inescapable truth about life – suffering – which reflects the author’s spiritual leaning towards Buddhism. In addition, the novella provides a brilliant portrayal of the patient’s ‘Abnormal Illness Behaviour’ and the ‘Doctor- Patient Relationship’ that should attract the attention of the student of Medicine.

As many scholars believe, there is no other literary artist than William Shakespeare who has had an in-depth understanding of the human condition, long before formal study of the human mind was undertaken by psychologists and psychiatrists. In his Magnum Opus, ’Hamlet’, he gives dramatic expression to the mourning and melancholy of Prince Hamlet, and the flight into a state of mania of grief-stricken Ophelia – two of his skilful character developments. He depicts the genesis of morbid jealousy in ‘Othello’ [a favourite of Psychiatrists!], and the existential dilemma of old age in ‘King Lear’, to mention a few. In his narrative poem ‘Lucrece’, Shakespeare poignantly gives lyrical expression to the agony and the psychological consequences of a victim of a sexual assault.

William Wordsworth, the lake poet of ‘The Daffodils’ fame maintained a high degree of resilience throughout life despite a series of personal losses including the loss of both his parents during his early development. He gained his inner strength by being nurtured by nature, the source of his creative energy-his sorrows sublimated through poetry. Wordsworth raises nature to a divine level to underscore her importance to man as teacher and healer.

Prose, verse and song often merging into one, and carried into a musical crescendo with matching melody was the main channel through which Rabindranath Tagore directed his creative energy. His wisdom is embodied in the ‘primordial truth’ of the interconnectedness of man and nature and the cosmic whole which formed the philosophical basis of his musical compositions. The predisposition to such confluence of feeling and nature occurred during his formative years: born to a family of 14 he was alone but not lonely, having nature as his companion, allowing his imagination run wild.

Many critics believe that Martin Wickremasinghe’s novel ‘Viragaya’ [dispassion] displays the best of his literary prowess. His skill in crafting the personality profile of Aravinda Jayasena, the protagonist of the narrative, makes it unique amongst his many works of creative literary artistry. It depicts the journey towards peace and tranquillity of a young man attempting to shed off all his passions. Often dubbed the ‘psychological novel’, Viragaya’s appeal is in the behavioural profile of Aravinda, which leaves the ‘psychological minded’ reader to mull over the complexities of his character.

Sinhabahu,

the mythical tale of the origin of the Sinhala race given dramatic expression by our greatest playwright, Prof. Ediriweera Sarachchandra, depicts a deeper psychological meaning of a young man’s separation and individuation by breaking away from his family to develop his own identity. The play enjoyed by many of us at the ‘wala’ at my alma mater in Peradeniya, oblivious then to its allegorical meaning!!

METHODOLOGIES in INCORPORATING

HUMANITIES in MEDICAL EDUCATION

Reorientation of the student of medicine by integrating humanities into the demanding medical curriculum is a challenge due to wider issues in our education system. Students who follow a science-based education with the intention of entering medical school perceive a dichotomy between natural sciences and literature. The dichotomy is a spurious one as both disciplines deal with the human condition! Those educated in evidence-based science subjects with ‘hard facts’, consider literature as a ‘softer’ area of study. The highly competitive tertiary entrance examination encourages the gathering of factual knowledge giving the student less time to be engaged in the arts and literature and to be absorbed in reflection.

As stated above, our nation is endowed with an ancient literary tradition well-placed to nurture literary sensibility. But many educationists today lament that we have lost our romance with the written word. Starting from the pre-school stage a significant restructuring of our education system is warranted to realise our literary potential.

A wide range of methodologies are used globally in incorporating Humanities into the medical curriculum. These include role play, use of video clips etc.

A common methodology used in the application of literature in Medical Humanities is the technique of ‘Close Reading’. It involves looking at a specific piece of text eg. a narrative poem, a short story or novella, and examining it in close detail in order to draw the imaginative and analytic skills of the student. It involves the exploration of characters, their personality profiles, the way they communicate with each other and the events and crises they create; appreciating the sociocultural context in which they occur; the student’s emotional response to the characters and situations; the allegorical meaning beneath the literal narrative; and the recognition of any underlying moral instruction. The intention is to create a safe environment for the students to freely discuss their observations. The facilitator navigates the discussion towards a clinically meaningful territory.

CONCLUSION

With the rapid progression of medicine into a technologically advanced profession, Social Sciences and Humanities as essential aspects of the Art of practice of medicine has struggled to occupy space in the heavily loaded medical curriculum. Classic literature, as a component of Humanities, has a role to play in meeting this need, vicariously, by fostering literary sensibility [and hence psychosocial and moral cognizance] through the allegorical themes presented by great works of literary art. Also, an added challenge posed by technological advances is the loss of our romance with the written word with the loss of sensibility during formative years, requiring an overhaul in our education system.

‘Wherever the art of medicine is loved there is also a love of humanity’ – Socrates.

[The writer is a retired Consultant Psychiatrist resident in Perth, Western Australia. He is a former examiner to the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, and the recipient of the 2023 Meritorious Service award of the RANZCP [WA Branch]. sirigalhenage@gmail.com

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Midweek Review

Dr. Jaishankar drags H’tota port to reverberating IRIS Dena affair

Published

4 days ago

2026/03/11

Sahan Weerasooriya

Sri Lanka reached an agreement with China to build the Hambantota port after India declined the then President Mahinda Rajapaksa’s request to take charge of the high profile project. The Indian decision may have been influenced by the war raging in the northern region at that time.

Indian Foreign Minister Dr. S. Jaishankar recognised Hambantota harbour as a Chinese military facility that underlined intimidating foreign military presence in the Indian Ocean. Jaishankar was responding to queries regarding India’s widely mentioned status as the region’s net security provider against the backdrop of a US submarine blowing up an Iranian frigate IRIS Dena, off Galle, within Sri Lanka’s Exclusive Economic Zone.

This happened at the Raisina Dialogue 2026 (March 5 to 7) in New Delhi. Raisina Dialogue was launched in 2016, three years after Narendra Modi became the Prime Minister.

The query obviously rattled the Indian Foreign Minister. Urging the moderator, Ms. Pakli Sharma Ipadhyay, to understand, what he called, the reality of the Indian Ocean, Dr. Jaishankar pointed out the joint US-British presence at Diego Garcia over the past five decades. Then he referred to the Chinese presence at Djibouti in East Africa, the first overseas Chinese military base, established in 2017, and Chinese takeover of Hambantota port, also during the same time. China secured the strategically located port on a 99-year lease for USD 1.2 bn, under controversial circumstances. China succeeded in spite of Indian efforts to halt Chinese projects here, including Colombo port city.

The submarine involved is widely believed to be Virginia-class USS Minnesota. The crew, included three Australian Navy personnel, according to international news agencies. However, others named the US Navy fast-attack submarine, involved in the incident, as USS Charlotte.

Diego Garcia is responsible for military operations in the Middle East, Africa and the Indo-Pacific. Dr. Jaishankar didn’t acknowledge that India, a key US ally and member of the Quad alliance, operated P8A maritime patrol and reconnaissance flights out of Diego Garcia last October. The US-India-Israel relationship is growing along with the US-Sri Lanka partnership.

The Indian Foreign Minister emphasised the deployment of the US Fifth Fleet in Bahrain, one of the countries that had been attacked by Iran, following the US-Israeli assassination of Iranian Supreme Leader, and key government functionaries, in a massive surprise attack, aiming at a regime change there. The Indian Minister briefly explained how they and Sri Lanka addressed the threat on three Indian navy vessels following the unprovoked US-Israeli attacks on Iran. Whatever the excuses, the undeniable truth is, as Sharma pointed out, that the US attack on the Iranian frigate took place in India’s backyard.

Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Vijitha Herath who faced Sharma before Dr. Jaishankar, struggled to explain the country’s position. Dr. Jaishankar made the audience laugh at Minister Herath’s expense who repeatedly said that Sri Lanka would deal with the situation in terms of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and international laws. Herath should have pointed out that Hambantota was not a military base and couldn’t be compared, under any circumstances, with the Chinese base in Djibouti.

Typical of the arrogant Western power dynamics, the US never cared for international laws and President Donald Trump quite clearly stated their position.

Israel is on record as having declared that the decision to launch attacks on Iran had been made months ago. Therefore, the sinking of the fully domestically built vessel that was launched in 2021 should be examined in the context of overall US-Israeli strategy meant to break the back of the incumbent Islamic revolutionary government and replace it with a pro-Western regime there as had been the case after the toppling of the democratically elected government there, led by Prime Minister Mossadegh, in August, 1953.

US Defence Secretary Pete Hegseth declared that IRIS Dena “thought it was safe in international waters’ but died a quiet death.” A US submarine torpedoed the vessel on the morning of March 4, off Galle, within Sri Lanka’s exclusive economic zone and that decision must have been made before the IRIS Dena joined International Fleet Review (IFR) and Exercise Milan 2026, at Visakhapatnam, from February 15 to 25.

The sinking of the Iranian vessel, a Moudge –class frigate attached to Iran’s southern fleet deployed in the Gulf of Oman and Strait of Hormuz, had been calculated to cause mayhem in the Indian Ocean. Obviously, and pathetically, Iran failed to comprehend the US-Israeli mindset after having already been fooled with devastating attacks, jointly launched by Washington and Tel Aviv against the country’s nuclear research facilities, while holding talks with it on the issue last June. Had they comprehended the situation they probably would have pulled out of the IFR and Milan 2026. Perhaps, Iran was lulled into a false sense of security because they felt the US wouldn’t hit ships invited by India. The US Navy did not participate though the US Air Force did.

The US action dramatically boosted Raisina Dialogue 2026, but at India’s expense. Prime Minister Modi’s two-day visit to Tel Aviv, just before the US-Israel launched the war to effect a regime change in Teheran, made the situation far worse. BJP seems to have decided on whose side India is on. But, the US action has, invariably, humiliated India. That cannot be denied. The Indian Navy posted a cheery message on X on February 17, the day before President Droupadi Murmu presided over IFR off the Visakhapatnam coast. “Welcome!” the Indian Navy wrote, greeting the Iranian warship IRIS Dena as it steamed into the port of Visakhapatnam to join an international naval gathering. Photographs showed Iranian sailors and a grey frigate gliding into the Indian harbour on a clear day. The hashtags spoke of “Bridges of Friendship” and “United Through Oceans.”

US alert

Dr. Jaishankar

Altogether, three Iranian vessels participated in IFR. In addition to the ill-fated IRIS Dena, the second frigate IRIS Lavan and auxiliary ships IRIS Bushehr comprised the group. Dr. Jaishankar disclosed at the Raisina Dialogue 2026 that Iran requested India to allow IRIS Lavan to enter Indian waters. India accommodated the vessel at Cochin Port (Kochi Port) on the Arabian Sea in Kerala.

At the time US torpedoed IRIS Dena, within Sri Lanka’s EEZ, IRIS Lavan was at Cochin port. Sri Lanka’s territorial waters extend 12 nautical miles (approximately 22 km) from the country’s coastline. The US hit the vessel 19 nautical miles off southern coastline.

Sri Lanka, too, participated in IFR and Milan 2026. SLN Sagara (formerly Varaha), a Vikram-class offshore patrol vessel of the Indian Coast Guard and SLN Nandimithra, A Fast Missile Vessel, acquired from Israel, participated and returned to Colombo on February 27, the day before IRIS Lavan sought protection in Indian waters.

Although many believed that Sri Lanka responded to the attack on IRIS Dena, following a distressed call from that ship, the truth is it was the Indo-Pacific Command (INDOPACOM) that alerted the Maritime Rescue Coordination centre (MRCC) after blowing it up with a single torpedo. The SLN’s Southern Command dispatched three Fast Attack Craft (FACs) while a tug from Sri Lanka Ports Authority (SLPA) joined later.

The INDOPACOM, while denying the Iranian claim that IRIS Dena had been unarmed at the time of the attack, emphasised: “US forces planned for and Sri Lanka provided life-saving support to survivors in accordance with the Law of Armed Conflict.” In the post shared on X (formerly Twitter) the US has, in no uncertain terms, said that they planned for the rescuing of survivors and the action was carried out by the Sri Lanka Navy.

IRIS Lavan and IRIS Bushehr are most likely to be held in Cochin and in Trincomalee ports, respectively, for some time with the crews accommodated on land. With the US-Israel combine vowing to go the whole hog there is no likelihood of either India or Sri Lanka allowing the ships to leave.

Much to the embarrassment of the Modi administration, former Indian Foreign Secretary Kanwal Sibal has said that IRIS Dena would not have been targeted if Iran was not invited to take part in IFR and Milan naval exercise.

“We were the hosts. As per protocol for this exercise, ships cannot carry any ammunition. It was defenseless. The Iranian naval personnel had paraded before our president,” he said in a post on X.

Sibal argued that the attack was premeditated, pointing out that the US Navy had been invited to the exercise but withdrew at the last minute, “presumably with this operation in mind.”

Sibal added that the US ignored India’s sensitivities, as the Iranian ship was present in the waters due to India’s invitation.

He stressed that India was neither politically nor militarily responsible for the US attack, but carried a moral and humanitarian responsibility.

“A word of condolence by the Indian Navy (after political clearance) at the loss of lives of those who were our invitees and saluted our president would be in order,” Sibal said.

Iran and even India appeared to have ignored the significance of USN pullout from IFR and Milan exercise at the eleventh hour. India and Sri Lanka caught up in US-Israeli strategy are facing embarrassing questions from the political opposition. Both Congress and Samagi Jana Balwegaya (SJB), as well as Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna (SLPP), exploited the situation to undermine respective governments over an unexpected situation created by the US. Both India and Sri Lanka ended up playing an unprecedented role in the post-Milan 2026 developments that may have a lasting impact on their relations with Iran.

The regional power India and Sri Lanka also conveniently failed to condemn the February 28 assassination of Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, while that country was holding talks with the US, with Oman serving as the mediator.

Condemning the unilateral attack on Iran, as well as the retaliatory strikes by Iran, Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha and Congress leader Rahul Gandhi on Tuesday (March 3, 2026) questioned India’s silence on the Middle East developments.

In a post on social media platform X, Gandhi said Prime Minister Narendra Modi must speak up. “Does he support the assassination of a Head of State as a way to define the world order? Silence now diminishes India’s standing in the world,” he said.

Under heavy Opposition fire, India condoled the Iranian leader’s assassination on March 5, almost a week after the killing. Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri met the Iran Ambassador in Delhi and signed the condolence book, though much belatedly.

SL-US relations

The Opposition questioned the NPP government’s handling of the IRIS Dena affair. They quite conveniently forgot that any other government wouldn’t have been able to do anything differently than bow to the will of the US. Under President Trump, Washington has been behaving recklessly, even towards its longtime friends, demanding that Canada become its 51st state and that Denmark handover Greenland pronto.

SJB and Opposition leader Sajith Premadasa cut a sorry figure demanding in Parliament whether Sri Lanka had the capacity to detect submarines or other underwater systems. Sri Lanka should be happy that the Southern Command could swiftly deploy three FACs and call in SLPA tug, thereby saving the lives of 32 Iranians and recovering 84 bodies of their unfortunate colleagues. Therefore, of the 180-member crew of IRIS Dena, 116 had been accounted for. The number of personnel categorised as missing but presumably dead is 64.

There is no doubt that Sri Lanka couldn’t have intervened if not for the US signal to go ahead with the humanitarian operation to pick up survivors. India, too, must have informed the US about the Iranian request for IRIS Lavan to re-enter Indian waters. Sri Lanka, too, couldn’t have brought the Iranian auxiliary vessel without US consent. President Trump is not interested in diplomatic niceties and the way he had dealt with European countries repeatedly proved his reckless approach. The irrefutable truth is that the US could have torpedoed the entire Iranian group even if they were in Sri Lankan or Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that extends to 200 nautical miles from its coastline.

In spite of constantly repeating Sri Lanka’s neutrality, successive governments succumbed to US pressure. In March 2007, Mahinda Rajapaksa’s government entered into Acquisition and Cross- Servicing Agreement (ACSA) with the US, a high profile bilateral legal mechanism to ensure uninterrupted support/supplies. The Rajapaksas went ahead with ACSA, in spite of strong opposition from some of its partners. In fact, they did not even bother to ask or take up the issue at Cabinet level before the then Defence Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa, a US citizen at the time, and US Ambassador here Robert O. Blake signed it. Close on the heels of the ACSA signing, the US provided specific intelligence that allowed the Sri Lanka Navy to hunt down four floating LTTE arsenals. Whatever critics say, that US intervention ensured the total disruption of the LTTE supply line and the collapse of their conventional fighting capacity by March 2009. The US favourably responded to the then Vice Admiral Wasantha Karannagoda’s request for help and the passing of intelligence was not in any way in line with ACSA.

That agreement covered the 2007 to 2017 period. The Yahapalana government extended it. Yahapalana partners, the SLFP and UNP, never formally discussed the decision to extend the agreement though President Maithripala Sirisena made a desperate attempt to distance himself from ACSA.

It would be pertinent to mention that the US had been pushing for ACSA during Rail Wickremesinghe’s tenure as the Premier, in the 2001-2003 period. But, he lacked the strength to finalise that agreement due to strong opposition from the then Opposition. During the time the Yahapalana government extended ACSA, the US also wanted the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) signed. SOFA, unlike ACSA, is a legally binding agreement that dealt with the deployment of US forces here. However, SOFA did not materialise but the possibility of the superpower taking it up cannot be ruled out.

Gotabaya Rajapaksa, who won the 2019 presidential election, earned the wrath of the US for declining to finalise MCC (Millennium Challenge Corporation) Compact on the basis of Prof. Gunaruwan Committee report that warned that the agreement contained provisions detrimental to national security, sovereignty, and the legal system. In the run up to the presidential election, UNP leader Ranil Wickremesinghe declared that he would enter into the agreement in case Sajith Premadasa won the contest.

Post-Aragalaya setup

Since the last presidential election held in September 2024, Admiral Steve Koehler, a four-star US Navy Admiral and Commander of the US Pacific Fleet visited Colombo twice in early October 2024 and February this year. Koehler’s visits marked the highest-level U.S. military engagement with Sri Lanka since 2021.

Between Koehler’s visits, the United States and Sri Lanka signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) formalising the defence partnership between the Montana National Guard, the US Coast Guard District 13, and the Sri Lanka Armed Forces under the Department of War’s State Partnership Programme (SPP). The JVP-led NPP government seems sure of its policy as it delayed taking a decision on one-year moratorium on all foreign research vessels entering Sri Lankan waters though it was designed to block Chinese vessels. The government is yet to announce its decision though the ban lapsed on December 31, 2024.

The then President Ranil Wickremesinghe was compelled to announce the ban due to intense US-Indian pressure.

The incumbent dispensation’s relationship with US and India should be examined against allegations that they facilitated ‘Aragalaya’ that forced President Gotabaya Rajapaksa out of office. The Trump administration underscored the importance of its relationship with Sri Lanka by handing over ex-US Coast Guard Cutter ‘Decisive ‘to the Sri Lanka Navy. The vessel, commanded by Captain Gayan Wickramasooriya, left Baltimore US Coast Guard Yard East Wall Jetty on February 23 and is expected to reach Trincomalee in the second week of May.

Last year Sri Lanka signed seven MoUs, including one on defence and then sold controlling shares of the Colombo Dockyard Limited (CDL) to a company affiliated to the Defence Ministry as New Delhi tightened its grip.

Sri Lanka-US relations seemed on track and the IRIS Dena incident is unlikely to distract the two countries. The US continues to take extraordinary measures to facilitate war on Iran. In a bid to overcome the Iranian blockade on crude carriers the US temporarily eased sanctions to allow India to buy Russian oil.

Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent declared a 30-day waiver was a “deliberate short-term measure” to allow oil to keep flowing in the global market. The US sanctioned Russian oil following Moscow’s invasion of Ukraine, forcing buyers to seek alternatives.

The US doesn’t care about the Ukraine government that must be really upset about the unexpected development. India was forced to halt buying Russian oil and now finds itself in a position to turn towards Russia again. But that would be definitely at the expense of Iran facing unprecedented military onslaught.

By Shamindra Ferdinando

Midweek Review

A Living Legend of the Peradeniya Tradition:

Published

4 days ago

2026/03/11

Sahan Weerasooriya

Prof. H. L. Seneviratne

A Tribute to Professor H. L. Seneviratne – Part I

My earliest memories of the eminent anthropologist, Professor H. L. Seneviratne date back to my childhood, when I first encountered his name through the vivid accounts of campus life shared by my late brother, Sugathapala de Silva, then a lecturer in the Department of Sinhala at the University of Peradeniya. By the time I became a first-year sociology student in 1968/69, I had the privilege of being taught by the Professor, whose guidance truly paved the way for my own progression in sociology and anthropology. Even then, it was clear that he was a towering presence—not just as an academician, but as a central figure in the lively cultural and literary renaissance that defined that era of the university’s intellectual history.

H.L. Seneviratne stood alongside a galaxy of intellectuals who shaped and developed the literary consciousness of the Peradeniya University. His professorial research made regular appearances in journals such as Sanskriti and Mimamsa, published Sinhala and English articles, and served as channels for the dissemination of the literary consciousness of Peradeniya to the population at large. These texts were living texts of a dynamic intellectual ferment where the synthesis of classical aesthetic sensibilities with current critical intellectual thought in contemporary Sri Lanka was under way.

The concept of a ‘Peradeniya tradition or culture’, a term which would later become legendary in Sri Lankan literary and intellectual circles, was already being formed at this time. Peradeniya culture came to represent a distinctive synthesis: cosmopolitanism entwined with well-rooted local customs, aesthetic innovation based on classical Sinhala styles, and critical interaction with modernity. Among its pre-eminent practitioners were intellectual giants such as Ediriweera Sarachchandra, Gunadasa Amarasekara, and Siri Gunasinghe. These figures and H.L. Seneviratne himself, were central to the shaping of a space of cultural and literary critique that ranged from newspapers to book-length works, public speeches to theatrical performance.

Unlimited influence

H.L. Seneviratne’s influence was not limited to the printed page, which I discuss in this article. He operated in and responded to the performative, interactive space of drama and music, situating lived artistic practice in his cultural thought. I recall with vividness the late 1950s, a period seared into my memory as one of revelation, when I as a child was fortunate enough to witness one of the first performances of Maname, the trailblazing Sinhala drama that revolutionised Sri Lankan theatre. Drawn from the Nadagam tradition and staged in the open-air theatre in Peradeniya—now known as Sarachchandra Elimahan Ranga Pitaya—or Wala as used by the campus students. Maname was not so much a play as a culturally transformative experience.

H.L. Seneviratne was not just an observer of this change. He joined the orchestra of Maname staged on November 3, 1956, lending his voice and presence to the collective heartbeat of the performance. He even contributed to the musical group by playing the esraj, a quiet but vital addition to the performance’s beauty and richness. Apart from these roles, he played an important part in the activities of Professor Sarathchandra’s Sinhala Drama Society, a talent nursery and centre for collaboration between artists and intellectuals. H.L. Seneviratne was a friend of Arthur Silva, a fellow resident of Arunachalam Hall then, and the President of the Drama Circle. H.L. Seneviratne had the good fortune to play a role, both as a member of the original cast, and an active member of the Drama Circle that prevailed on lecturer E.R. Sarathchandra to produce a play and gave him indispensable organizational support. It was through this society that Sarachchandra attracted some of the actors who brought into being Maname and later Sinhabhahu, plays which have become the cornerstone of Sri Lanka’s theatrical heritage.

The best chronicler of Maname

H.L. Seneviratne is the best chronicler of Maname. (Towards a National Art, From Home and the World, Essays in honour of Sarath Amunugama. Ramanika Unamboowe and Varuni Fernando (eds)). He chronicles the genesis of Ediriweera Sarachchandra’s seminal play Maname, framing it as a pivotal attempt to forge a sophisticated national identity by synthesizing indigenous folk traditions with Eastern theatrical aesthetics. Seneviratne details how Sarachchandra, disillusioned with the ‘artificiality’ of Western-influenced urban theatre and the limitations of both elite satires and rural folk plays, looked toward the Japanese Noh and Kabuki traditions to find a model for a ‘national’ art that could appeal across class divides. The author emphasises that the success of Maname was not merely a solo intellectual feat but a gruelling, collective effort involving a ‘gang of five’ academics and a dedicated cohort of rural, bilingual students from the University of Ceylon at Peradeniya. Through anecdotes regarding the discovery of lead actors like Edmund Wijesinghe and the assembly of a unique orchestra, Seneviratne highlights the logistical struggles—from finding authentic instruments to managing cumbersome stage sets—that ultimately birthed a transformative ‘oriental’ theatre rooted in the nadagama style yet refined for a modern, sophisticated audience.

Born in Sri Lanka in 1934, in a village in Horana, he was educated at the Horana Taxila College following which he was admitted to the Department of Sociology at the University of Peradeniya. H.L. Seneviratne’s academic journey subsequently led him to the University of Rochester for his doctoral studies. But, despite his long tenure in the United States, his research has remained firmly rooted in the soil of his homeland.

His early seminal work, Rituals of the Kandyan State, his PhD thesis turned into a book, offered a groundbreaking analysis of the Temple of the Tooth (Dalada Maligawa). By examining the ceremonies surrounding the sacred relic, H.L. Seneviratne demonstrated how religious performance served as the bedrock of political legitimacy in the Kandyan Kingdom. He argued that these rituals at the time of his fieldwork in the early 1970s were not static relics of the past, but active tools used to construct and maintain the authority of the state, the ideas that would resonate throughout his later career.

The Work of Kings

Perhaps, his most provocative contribution arrived with the publication of The Work of Kings published in 1999. In this sweeping study, H.L. Seneviratne traced the transformation of the Buddhist clergy, or Sangha, from the early 20th-century ‘social service’ monks, who focused on education and community upliftment, to the more politically charged nationalist figures of the modern era. He analysed the shift away from a universalist, humanistic Buddhism toward a more exclusionary identity, sparking intense debate within both academic and religious circles in Sri Lanka.

In The Work of Kings, H.L. Seneviratne has presented a sophisticated critique and argued that in the early 20th century, influenced by figures like Anagarika Dharmapala, there was a brief ‘monastic ideal’ centred on social service and education. This period saw monks acting as catalysts for community development and moral reform embodying a humanistic version of Buddhism that sought to modernize the country while maintaining its spiritual integrity.

However, H.L. Seneviratne contends that this situation was eventually derailed by the rise of post-independence nationalism. He describes a process where the clergy moved away from universalist goals to become the vanguard of a narrow ethno-religious identity. By aligning themselves so closely with the state and partisan politics, H.L. Seneviratne suggests that the Sangha inadvertently traded their moral authority for political influence. This shift, in his view, led to the ‘betrayal’ of the original social service movement, replacing a vision of broad social progress with one centred on political dominance.

The core of his critique lies in the disappearance of what he calls the ‘intellectual monk.’ He laments the decline of the scholarly, reflective tradition in favour of a more populist and often inflammatory rhetoric. By analysing the rhetoric of key monastic figures, H.L. Senevirathne illustrates how the language of Buddhism was repurposed to justify political ends, often at the expense of the pluralistic values that he believes are inherent to the faith’s core teachings.

H.L. Seneviratne’s work remains highly relevant today as it provides a framework for understanding contemporary religious tensions. His analysis serves as a warning about the consequences of merging religious institutional power with state politics. By documenting this historical shift, he challenges modern Sri Lankans—and global observers—to reconsider the role of religious institutions in a secular, democratic state, urging a return to the compassionate and socially inclusive roots of the Buddhist tradition.

Within the broader context of Sri Lankan anthropology, H.L. Seneviratne is frequently grouped with other towering figures of his generation, most notably Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah and Gananath Obeyesekere. Together, this remarkable cohort revolutionized the study of Sri Lanka by applying structural and psychological analyses to religious and ethnic identity. While Tambiah famously interrogated the betrayal of non-violent Buddhist principles in the face of political violence, H.L. Seneviratne’s work is often seen as the essential sociological counterpart, providing the detailed historical and institutional narrative of how the monastic order itself was reshaped by these very forces.

Reation to Seneviratne’s critque

The reaction to H.L. Seneviratne’s critique has been as multifaceted as the work itself. In academic circles, particularly those influenced by post-colonial theory, he is celebrated for speaking truth in a public place. Scholars have noted that because he writes as an insider—both a Sinhalese and a Buddhist, that makes them both credible and, to some, highly objectionable. His work has paved the way for a younger generation of Sri Lankan sociologists and anthropologists to move beyond traditional functionalism towards more radical articulations of competing interests and political power.

However, his analysis has also made him a target for nationalist critics. Those aligned with ethno-religious movements often view his deconstruction of the Sangha’s political role as an attack on Sinhalese-Buddhist identity itself. These detractors argue that H.L. Seneviratne’s intellectualist or universalist view of Buddhism fails to account for the necessity of the clergy’s role in protecting the nation against neo colonial and modern pressures. This tension highlights the very descent into ideology that H.L. Seneviratne has spent his career documenting.

H.L. Seneviratne’s legacy is defined by this ongoing dialogue between scholarship and social reality. His transition from the detached scholar seen in his early work on Kandyan rituals to the socially concerned intellectual of The Work of Kings mirrors the very transformation of the Sangha and Buddha Sasana he studied. By refusing to look away from the complexities of the present, he has ensured that his work remains a cornerstone for any serious discussion on the future of religion and governance in Sri Lanka.

Focus on good governance

In his later years, H.L. Seneviratne has pivoted his focus toward the practical application of his theories, specifically examining how the concept of ‘Good Governance’ interacts with traditional religious structures. He argues that for Sri Lanka to achieve true stability, there must be a fundamental reimagining of the Sangha’s role in the public sphere—one that moves away from the ‘work of Kings’ and returns to a more ethical, advisory capacity. This shift in his recent lectures reflects a deep concern about the erosion of democratic institutions and the way religious sentiment can be harnessed to bypass the rule of law.

Building on this, contemporary scholars like Benjamin Schonthal have expanded H.L. Seneviratne’s inquiry into the legal and constitutional dimensions of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. While H.L. Seneviratne provided the anthropological groundwork for how monks gained political power, this newer generation of academics examines how that power has been codified into the very laws of the state. They explore the ‘path dependency’ created by the historical shifts H.L. Seneviratne documented, looking at how the legal privileging of Buddhism creates unique challenges for a pluralistic society.

New Sangha

Furthermore, his influence is visible in the work of local scholars who focus on ‘engaged Buddhism.’ These researchers look back at H.L. Seneviratne’s description of the early 20th-century social service monks as a blueprint for modern reform. By identifying the moment where the clergy’s mission shifted from social welfare to political nationalism, these scholars use H.L. Seneviratne’s historical milestones to advocate a ‘New Sangha’ that prioritizes reconciliation and inter-ethnic harmony over state-aligned power.

The enduring power of H.L. Seneviratne’s work lies in its refusal to offer easy answers. By mapping the transition within Buddhist practice from ritual to politics, and from social service to nationalism, he has provided an analytical framework in which the nation can see its own transformation. His legacy is not just a collection of books, but a persistent, rigorous habit of questioning that continues to inspire those who seek to understand the delicate balance between faith and the modern state.

H.L. Seneviratne continues to challenge his audience to think beyond the immediate political moment. By documenting the arc of Sri Lankan history from the sacred rituals of the Kandyan kings to the modern halls of parliament, he provides a vital sense of perspective. Whether he is being celebrated by the academic community or critiqued by nationalist voices, his work ensures that the conversation regarding the soul of the nation remains rigorous, historically grounded, and unafraid of its own complexities.

Anthropology and cinema

H.L. Seneviratne identifies the mid-1950s as the critical turning point for this cinematic shift, specifically anchoring the move to 1956 with the release of Lester James Peries’s “Rekava.” This period was a watershed moment in Sri Lankan history, coinciding with a broader nationalist resurgence that sought to reclaim a localized identity from the influence of colonial and foreign powers. H.L. Seneviratne suggests that before this era, the ‘South Indian formula’ dominated the screen, characterized by studio-bound sets, theatrical acting, and musical interludes that felt alien to the island’s actual social fabric. The pioneers of this movement, led by Lester James Peries and later followed by figures like Siri Gunasinghe in the early 1960s, deliberately moved the camera into the open air of the rural village to capture what H.L. Seneviratne describes as the ‘authentic rhythms’ of life. This transition was not merely aesthetic but deeply ideological; it replaced the mythical, exaggerated heroism of commercial cinema with a nuanced exploration of the post-colonial middle class and the crumbling feudal hierarchies. By the 1960s, through landmark works like ‘Gamperaliya,’ these filmmakers were successfully crafting a modern mythology that reflected the internal psychological tensions and the social evolution of a nation navigating its way between traditional Buddhist values and a rapidly modernizing world.

His critique of the relationship between art and the state is particularly evident in his analysis of historical epics, where he has argued that certain cinematic portrayals of ancient kings and battles serve as a form of ‘visual nationalism,’ translating the ideological shifts he documented in The Work of Kings onto the silver screen. By analysing these films, he shows how popular culture can become a powerful tool for constructing a simplified, heroic past that often ignores the multi-ethnic and pluralistic realities of the island’s history.

(To be concluded)

by Professor M. W. Amarasiri de Silva