Dr. Justice Chandradasa Nanayakkara, who makes valuable contributions to Buddhist literature in these columns, has written another excellent article under the above caption (The Island, 10.07.2025), which could generate a useful discussion on Buddhist philosophy. The present article is an attempt to contribute to such a discussion.

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with abstract subjects like being, reality, mind-body relationship, etc. Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, was one of the earliest thinkers to write on the subject. His monumental work “Metapysics” set the tone for the subsequent development of it in Western philosophy. He calls metaphysics “First Philosophy” and in his work he dealt with “substance theory”, form and matter, different kinds of causation, cosmos, etc.

In the present context, it may be interesting to see what methods are generally employed in the study of metaphysics and what methods did Buddha use to gain his knowledge of the Dhamma. Metaphysicians mainly employ a priori methods like rational intuition and abstract reasoning from general principles, rather than sensory experience. In contrast, a posteriori  approaches are used in empiricism based science (Koon, 2015). What was Buddha’s method of gaining knowledge ? In the Sangarava sutta (Samyutta Nikāya) Buddha says, there are three methods of deriving knowledge that teachers and philosophers of his day employ. Firstly, there are the Revelationists who believe in revelation of knowledge by divine powers. Secondly, there are the rational metaphysicians who depend on reason for knowledge. Thirdly, there are those who derive their knowledge by sensory and extra-sensory perception. And Buddha said he belongs in the third group. This is very significant as Buddha confirms that he is an empiricist. He also cautions that one has to be very careful in being reliant on rational thinking alone for it could lead to metaphysical thought without a basis on experience (Jayatilake, 1963).

Moreover, Nirvana, the final goal in Buddhism, is considered to be a form of  higher knowledge (Tillekeratne, 1993). Buddha experienced it in life and described it in detail. Similarly, other Arahaths, too, had vividly described their experience of Nirvana (Thera, Theri Gatha). In contrast, regarding the after-death experience of Arahath, Buddha  was non-committal (Aggivachchagotta sutta, Majjima Nikaya). This, perhaps, shows that Buddha did not want to comment on things he had not experienced. In other words, when it came to Nirvana, Buddha totally avoided metaphysical speculation. This does not mean Buddha did not engage in metaphysics, we will come to that later.

The Buddha’s theory of anicca (impermanence), on which his Dhamma was built, is another instance where Buddha relies entirely on experience and not on metaphysics. He could perceive that the empirical world was impermanent. Further he could see the suffering around him and thus the dukha theory was grounded on experience. He could see that one was not in control of oneself and could not do as one pleases, which would not be the case if there was a Self. He knew that the theory of Self in the Veda was based on metaphysical speculation. He also knew that when he categorically states that there is no Self, it is an inference based on experience. Therefore, one may surmise, that there could be an element of metaphysics that is based on empiricism, in the no-Self theory. That is the status of the “Three Marks of Existance” , “anicca, dukha, anatta.

With regard to the “Four Noble Truths” one could see that the theory is based primarily on experience. Suffering is an experience, and so is greed, and the relationship between these two could also be experienced.  The fact that, if one could control one’s desire one could lessen one’s suffering, is something one could experience in everyday life. It follows that if defilements could be spewed out there will be no suffering. Buddha by experiment and experience found the method to Aryastangika marga (Noble Eightfold Path) has very little, if any, metaphysics.

The theory of causation in Early Buddhism is also largely based on experience. One could see that, if there are no clouds, there is no rain. Buddha in Mūlapariyāya sutta (Majjhima Nikāya) says, “This being present that arises, this being absent that doesn’t arise”. He has not said “this arises from that”, which could be considered speculation.  Dependence on conditions is central to this theory and most empirical phenomena are, therefore, conditioned.

Dr. Nanayakkara has given a clear explanation of the paticca-samuppada and has categorised it as metaphysical theory. It is cyclic in form and is the basis of the samsaric cycle. Rebirth is an essential feature in this cycle. As there is no empirical evidence of rebirth, the cycle has a large component of metaphysics. Paticca-samuppada also provides a basis for several other metaphysical theories such as karma, rebirth, etc. It is the basis of the middle path that Buddha advocated and it avoids contrasting extremes like “existence and non-existence”, dualism and monism, eternalism and nihilism, determinism and indeterminism, etc.

Buddha preached the theory of karma and rebirth based on the higher knowledge he gained in Nirvana which gave him the power of extra sensory perception and thereby  knowledge of past lives. These theories constitute important components of Buddhist metaphysics.

Early Buddhism is mainly based on empiricism and it avoids substantialism, absolutism, eternalism and nihilism. It rejects metaphysics that support such theories and provides its own metaphysics grounded in empiricism to support its middle path.

N. A. de S. Amaratunga PhD, DSc ✍️

It is in the news that the Ministry of Education is seriously reconsidering the case for the Grade 5 Scholarship Examination. It is wise of the Minister of Education to undertake such reconsideration, given that the examination has lived, I think usefully, for more than sixty years. Long life itself is not a sufficient reason for a longer life; it may have outlived its usefulness and there may be more productive and fairer alternative solutions to the problems it was initially designed to solve. Or, the problems themselves may have changed. Has the Grade 5 Scholarship Examination outlived its usefulness? There are no longitudinal studies of the lives of children who won these scholarships, and one has to depend on anecdotal accounts.

The first 5th standard scholarship examination was held in 1944 and my sister won a scholarship and later volunteered to go to the Training College in Maharagama and become a Specialist English Teacher, so that I could go to university. I took the second Scholarship Examination in 1945 and joined my sister at Hikkaduwa Central School in January 1946. The case of these two siblings was repeated many times over to become a significant social force. The overthrow of the ‘Colombo elite’, who later became little more than a gang of thieves, from political power and the election to office of men and women from entirely new social strata, is an outcome of the social dynamics partly driven by ‘free education’. Can those social forces function without the fillip provided by the 5th standard scholarship examination?

Our parents had no idea of university education or the English language. This was true of most people in the country in the 1940s; it is no longer true. Now, practically everyone is literate and ‘university’  (uni, varsity, campus) is a part of their regular vocabulary. English is no longer a language spoken by people in a distant and strange land. Movies, radio and television, cheap air travel and somewhat higher incomes have combined to bring English closer home to most adults.

At home, English is still a stranger and not a familiar friend who casually walks into the living room. There are small groups of people who are conversant with Arabic, Japanese, Korean or Hindi. English is more familiar than Tamil to most Sinhala speakers and more than Sinhala is to most Tamil speakers. Even parents earning very little and are otherwise stingy and scraping to meet daily expenses, manage to send their children to ‘tuition classes’ to improve the chances that their children would do well at the 5th Grade Scholarship Examination. Changes during the last two generations in a world that has benefited from growth in knowledge and in technology have brought in massive changes in our society.

The social fluidity that the 5th grade scholarship examination and ‘free education’ brought to this society has fired up the imaginations of most people to demand high standards of living, which a sluggish economy has denied them. (I have argued many times on these pages that school education is not a condition necessary to promote or sustain economic growth.) Hence, the exodus from this country during the last generation continues unabated. To call in moralistic considerations and accuse the students of ingratitude when they emigrate for employment is to misread the plight of these young men and women.

Besides, they now remit more than several billion dollars annually, which helps to keep the economy from sinking, weighed down by debt, a part of which was robbed by politicians and public servants. (In 2024, émigré Indian workers remitted some $135 billion to India. In 1976, the amount was about 500 million.)  All these changes have made the 5th standard scholarship examination superfluous for driving children to school and for making them stay there for some 11 years. Drop-out rates become sharp at the end of grade eleven. These are massive achievements in our society, but I doubt the 5th standard scholarship examination is any longer necessary to sustain the dynamism that will sustain them.

The scholarship examination was part of a broader programme. Until well into the 1960s, secondary schools thrived in ‘urban’ areas. When I was in school, a child wanting to study beyond Grade 5 had to attend a secondary school, sometimes several and often many miles away from home, in a town that required resources for transportation, boarding and lodging near the school. (Martin Wickremasinghe and Gunadasa Amarasekera both wrote about this feature in their novels).

Likewise, parents needed information about these opportunities, which was scarce among poor people. An important part of the free education package was opening 54 good secondary schools in rural areas, each in an electoral district. Between 1944 and 1947, 54 central schools opened, first in Matugama and the last in Kuliyapitiya (Meeghakotuva). In between, schools opened in Weeraketiya and Henegama, Poramadulla and Green Street (Kotahena), Ginigathhena and Neliaddy. (Three months ago, when I was in the neighbourhood, I went up to see Wanduramba  Central School, where the first principal was Sumanasuriya, whom I knew a little.

I expected more imposing infrastructure.) Most of these schools had young men as their first principals, mainly university graduates. Many of these men had been teachers in urban secondary schools: Devendra in Hikkaduva from Trinity College, Kandy; Jayatilleke in Ibbagamuva from St. Peter’s, College, Bambalapitiya; T.C.I. Ekanayake in Pelmadulla from Christian College, Kotte. Young men and women emerging from the new University of Ceylon taught English, European and Indian history, Sinhala/Tamil, and occasionally mathematics and sciences in these schools.

Women had yet to enter these institutions, but when they came from central schools in large numbers, they almost took over the teaching profession. These schools taught in English, the ‘white’ language that once thrived in towns and now sought habitats in ‘brown’ rural areas. Students who won the 5th standard scholarships gained entry to these central schools. Most central schools had hostels for both girls and boys, which enabled students to participate fully in all school activities.

More important, life in hostels was culturally much richer than in the homes of most of those children. There were many bright students at varying stages of schooling and interaction among them was stimulating. There were a few teachers living in the hostel who were a constant source of help. (My novel aluth mathanga has a detailed account of that life.) Now, education from Grade I to university is available in Sinhala and Tamil. Secondary schools are widespread in the countryside, and the 5th standard scholarship examination is no longer required for children to access secondary education.

However, the culture of poverty, especially in disadvantaged homes, remains a serious problem. Some communities have yet to benefit from that feature of ‘free education’: children of families working on plantations. We, as a society, miss out on the contributions these children can make.

The children themselves lose both the material and the cultural wealth that education brings. As the 5th standard scholarship and the free education scheme both left these children and communities behind, any reform of the education system must address their needs seriously and without delay.

Yet, why are parents so keen to see their children score high marks at the 5th standard scholarship examination? Because those high marks have come to serve new purposes. The nature of the examination itself has changed over time, although I have not seen any analytical account of these changes. When I sat the scholarship examination, and many years later, it was a test of intelligence as was understood then.

There were no textbooks, and so far as I knew, nobody worked out answers to old question papers in preparation for the scholarship examination. For the examination itself , students were required to bring with them an HH pencil. They answered questions in simple logic, unencumbered, as far as possible, with differences in cultural backgrounds.  That feature ensured that children from poor homes and affluent families, of equal intellectual ability, had equal chances of scoring roughly equally. The examination, as now administered, is deeply biased against children from underprivileged homes. Casual evidence is that students who are felicitated each year for obtaining high scores are almost invariably from homes where both parents are highly educated, in regular employment and live in homes where a student could work quietly.

(The Consumer Finance Surveys conducted by the Central Bank in the earliest years and the Living Standards Surveys conducted by the Statistics Department latterly, inform you about the quality of housing by locality and income levels.) The whole idea of the 5th standard scholarships was to give a leg up to bright children from disadvantaged homes and not to speed up the progress of students from fairly affluent families. Such intensive study as 5th graders now undertake should not be necessary, if the objective were to test the intellectual ability of children. The present examination tests not only the intelligence of students but also their cultural sophistication, which varies with the income levels of parents.

(I ran around the village in grade 5, as if nothing else mattered. If we had had to answer question papers that students face now, my sister and I would not have had a ghost of a chance of going to secondary school and university.)  A child who runs off the noise and dust on village roads must be able to do as well as one who comes from a home with several rooms, cemented floors and tiled roofs. At least that is my experience.

Evidence is now plentiful that the culture in the home that children come from is a large determinant of how well students perform at higher levels of education. Where data is available, it is possible with knowledge of the zip code in the address of a student’s home, to guess correctly the level of education and the professions of the parents of a student and the probability of that student’s high SAT score and the eventual admission to an elite college. In rich countries, during the last 30 years or so, there has come to perpetuate a sort of a ‘caste system’ where children of brahmins perpetually keep out the rest from learning in elite colleges and universities.

As brahmins exclusively read, learn and pray from the vedas, so do the offspring of highly educated and well-off persons monopolise admission to elite universities and professions. The concern of parents to seek a ‘good school’ for their child is right. But that search must be backed up by the right kind of information. The ‘right kind of information’ is not distributed randomly. The more affluent have connections and the funds to obtain the right information.

The parents may be past pupils of ‘good schools’ and it is known that past pupils work to get elected to senior positions in the past pupils’ association when they need to admit their child to that school.

The 5th standard scholarships, central schools with students’ hostels and the system of ‘free education’ all served a civilising function in this society. Some features of that combination are no longer essential to continue that noble endeavour. There is a special responsibility of our society to integrate children from the plantations with the main society and a good school system can help in that process.  New sources of social stratification are emerging and we need to provide pathways both in and out of such structures. The new minister of education and the new government can be helpful.

by Usvatte-aratchi ✍️

Metaphysics explores fundamental questions about reality, existence, and being, primarily through abstract thought and reasoning. Metaphysics should be distinguished from philosophy. While metaphysics is a specific branch of philosophy, its scope is narrower in focus and has a narrower connotation than philosophy. Additionally, metaphysics and science are distinct fields of study, although they sometimes intersect and inform each other. Science focuses on understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and the formulation of testable theories.

Metaphysical and philosophical concepts are closely intertwined with Buddhism and many other religious traditions. Metaphysical doctrines in Buddhism explore philosophical beliefs that extend beyond the physical realm.

Buddhism presents a profound set of metaphysical doctrines, such as the concept of Nirvana, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the concept of Dependent Origination, the Law of Kamma, and the Three Marks of Existence. Together, these teachings offer invaluable insights into the nature of reality, the root of suffering, and the transformative path to liberation.

Overall, the Buddha’s teachings present a distinctive perspective on fundamental questions of existence, emphasising the self and human experience while incorporating both philosophical and esoteric insights. Through this lens, Buddhism provides distinctive perspectives on existence compared to other philosophical traditions. Buddhism prioritises practical aspects of the path to liberation and generally steers clear of abstract metaphysical debates concerning the nature of reality beyond the present experiences. Rather, than constructing a comprehensive metaphysical framework, Buddhism primarily focuses on soteriology, emphasizing the goal of liberation from suffering

Different schools within Buddhism approach these questions in diverse ways, with some formulating elaborate philosophical frameworks, while others focus on dismantling all viewpoints, including metaphysical ones.

Western philosophical perspectives often classify Buddhism as nontheistic, as it does not subscribe to specific notions of divinity or formal theology. In theistic traditions, the concepts typically associated with God, such as omnipotence, omniscience, transcendence, and eternity, are firmly within the metaphysical domain and intrinsically linked to metaphysical inquiries.

However, the classification of Buddhism as entirely non-theistic and non-metaphysical merits reconsideration, as many Buddhist sutras refer to a variety of supernatural beings, such as demigods, devas, and other celestial beings that exist within the Buddhist cosmology. These celestial beings, which fall within the realm of metaphysics, are not regarded as creators or eternal entities; rather, their existence is part of the cycle of rebirth known as samsara.

The concept of nirvana, rooted in metaphysical principles, occupies a distinctive place within Buddhist thought. Nirvana, in the context of Buddhist philosophy, is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses not only metaphysical elements but also philosophical and psychological dimensions. It represents the ultimate liberation from suffering and the dissolution of desire, a state a person achieves through their perseverance. Nirvana is not a specific location or a thing; It represents a state beyond the physical realm, transcending ordinary experience and the cycle of birth, rebirth and death (samsara). It is elusive, beyond the reach of ordinary perception and comprehension through conventional means. Some interpret it as a profound realisation of the ultimate truth attained through deep meditation and wisdom. The Buddha likened Nirvana to a fire that is extinguished or a flame that has gone out, symbolising the complete cessation of suffering and desire.

Additionally, Buddhism articulates fundamental metaphysical principles through the illustration of the three marks of existence. In the Pali tradition of the Theravada school, the three marks are (a)Sabbe sankara anicca, that is, all conditioned things are impermanent. Buddhism maintains that all material phenomena are transient, undergoing a continuous cycle of birth, growth, decline, and dissolution. Living beings come into existence, develop, age, and ultimately cease to exist. (b), Sabbe sankhara dukka, that is, all conditioned things are unsatisfactory, imperfect and unstable. Dukka can be mental or physical; it can be anything from small irritations up to intense suffering. (c) Sabbe dhamma anatta, that is, all conditioned and unconditioned things have no unchanging self or soul. This doctrine of anatta (no self) in Buddhism is a prime example of a concept that has profound metaphysical implications. The Buddhist concept of anatta, or no-self, challenges the notion of a permanent, unchanging self, a fundamental belief in many other philosophical and religious traditions.

Moreover, the doctrine of dependent origination (paticca samuppada) exemplifies another cardinal principle of Buddhist metaphysics, demonstrating the interconnectedness of existence and the conditions that lead to suffering. The doctrine of Dependent Origination stands as one of the most profound teachings within Buddhism, accessible only to those who have attained a high degree of spiritual maturity. This profound doctrine can be comprehended with spiritual maturity. At its core, Dependent Origination reveals that life and the universe are constructed upon a web of interrelations, wherein the emergence and cessation of any phenomenon are intricately linked to a network of supportive conditions. It underscores the notion that all phenomena are relative and contingent, unable to exist in isolation from the conditions that nurture them. A phenomenon arises from a specific constellation of circumstances, and it will inevitably fade away when those conditions shift, ceasing to provide the necessary support for its existence. The basis of dependent origination is that life or the world is built on a set of relations, in which the arising and cessation of factors depend on some other factors which condition them. In other words, the world comprises a multitude of interconnected entities, both inanimate and animate, with nothing existing in isolation, and all phenomena in the universe are relative, conditioned states and do not arise independently of supportive conditions. The principle encapsulated in this doctrine could be succinctly expressed in the following formula. “When this is, that is This arising that arises When this not, that is not This ceasing that ceases”.

The Middle Way or Middle Path in Buddhism, which serves as another cornerstone of Buddhist philosophy, refers to two major aspects of Dhamma, the first teaching of the Buddha upon awakening. Firstly, it refers to a spiritual practice that steers clear of both extreme ascetism and sensual indulgence. These two extremes are not conducive to spiritual awakening. The spiritual path is defined as the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to enlightenment. It is a guide to ethical living, mental discipline and wisdom. The second formulation refers to how Buddhist teachings approach ontological issues of existence and personal identity by avoiding eternalism and annihilationism, or nihilism.

In Buddhism, the concept of rebirth signifies the cyclical journey of birth, death, and rebirth, intricately intertwined with the workings of kamma (or karma). This notion represents the continuation of consciousness—or a subtle form of awareness—that persists beyond death, ushering in a new existence. As a fundamentally metaphysical belief, rebirth posits a cycle known as samsara, within which consciousness transmigrates from one life to the next, devoid of a permanent soul. This perspective transcends the physical realm, probing into the very nature of reality, consciousness, and the continuity of experience that extends beyond mortal life.

Moreover, the idea of rebirth, often synonymous with reincarnation, is a cornerstone in numerous religious and spiritual traditions. However, the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth is different from the theory of reincarnation and transmigration in other religious traditions, which assert the immortality of the human soul, which does not dissipate after biological death and the soul is believed to transmigrate into a new body—be it human or animal—continuing its odyssey through samsara. Buddhism denies the existence of such a transmigrating permanent soul created by God or emanating from a divine source.

Kamma , another central tenet in Buddhist philosophy, is a profound metaphysical construct essential for grasping the rhythm of rebirth and the ramifications of our actions. It signifies intentional action rooted in volition that shapes our experiences and moulds our future existences. Operating as a natural law of cause and effect, kamma stands independent of any divine interference, devoid of rewards or punishments bestowed by an external deity. It is not merely the act itself that defines kamma; it is the underlying intention that infuses it with meaning. the consequences of which cannot be avoided. However, although most experiences in life are the results of previous actions, our responses to experiences are not predetermined. What happens to us now may have resulted from past causes, but how we respond to what occurs in the present will determine what we experience in the future. The underlying intentions behind our actions are what determine the nature of their results. Consequences of our actions rebound back to us either later in the same life in which actions are committed, or in some future life.

Kamma in Buddhism is a metaphysical concept central to understanding the cycle of rebirth and the consequences of actions. It refers to intentional action driven by volition, the vast tapestry of Buddhism, the concept of rebirth unfolds as a profound narrative of existence, intricately woven into the fabric of kamma (or karma).

The foundational doctrine in Buddhism is the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths are considered the cornerstone of Buddhist philosophy, which serves as a framework for understanding the nature of existence and the path to liberation from suffering.

Although the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are not inherently metaphysical, dealing with abstract, unobservable entities or concepts, they encompass metaphysical dimensions, particularly regarding the nature of reality and the cycle of existence. While these truths serve as practical guidance for transcending suffering, they also provide profound insights into the essence of existence, highlighting the interconnectedness of the mind, the impermanence of all things, and the principle of dependent origination.

The first Truth Dukka (suffering) acknowledges the pervasive nature of human suffering. Dukka encompasses a spectrum of human experiences ranging from minor irritations to intense suffering and deep discontent. The reality of suffering encompasses not only physical pain but also the fundamental unsatisfactoriness and fleeting nature of all conditioned experiences. This perspective requires a deeper metaphysical comprehension of existence as something that is continuously evolving and ultimately fails to provide enduring fulfilment.

The second Truth, the origin of suffering (Samudaya). Suffering arises from craving, attachment, and ignorance.

The Third Truth, the cessation of Suffering.(Nirodha) It is possible to end suffering by eliminating craving and attachment.

The Fourth Truth, the path leading to the cessation of suffering.(Magga). It is the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the end of suffering.

Buddhists hold the belief that there are various realms or dimensions of existence, which fall within the metaphysical domain. A human being goes through repeated cycles of birth and death until achieving supreme bliss, known as Nibbana. Buddhist cosmology identifies six realms in which rebirth can occur, encompassing the cycle of existence called samsara. These realms include the Hell Realm (Naraka), the Hungry Ghost Realm (Preta), the Animal Realm (Tiryagyon), the Demigod Realm (Asura), and the God Realm (Deva).

These realms are typically divided into two categories: three higher realms associated with positive experiences and three lower realms linked to negative or unfortunate circumstances. The higher realms comprise the realms of gods, humans, and demigods, while the lower realms encompass those of animals, hungry ghosts, and beings in hell.

Rather than being viewed as physical locations, these realms are often understood as states of being shaped by one’s kamma (actions) and mental afflictions. They represent varying levels of existence, ranging from blissful experiences to those marked by profound suffering. Some Buddhists see these realms as actual places within the karmic cycle of rebirth, while others interpret them as symbolic representations of different emotional and mental states.

When we examine the fundamentals of Buddhism, they reveal a particular way of viewing human life and a unique understanding of reality and human existence, which constitutes a distinct metaphysical vision.

by Dr Justice
Chandradasa Nanayakkara